Theory and Methods Debates

Question 1

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

What is a science?

Answer 1

The objective and systematic study that relies on empirical evidence to aquire knowledge of the natural world.

Question 2

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

What is empiricism?

5 Components of science

Answer 2

An approach that emphasises the collection and analysis of data from direct observation, measurement or experimentation.

Question 3

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

What is testable?

5 Components of science

Answer 3

When a hypothesis or research question can be examined and evaluated through investigation.

Question 4

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

What is theoretical?

5 Components of science

Answer 4

The use of theories to expalin and understandsocial phenomena.

Question 5

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

What is cumulative?

5 Components of science

Answer 5

Building on existing knowledge through the collection of evidence.

Question 6

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

What is objective?

5 Components of science

Answer 6

minimising bias when conducting research.

Question 7

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Why can sociology be considered a science?

Answer 7

It meets several key criteria that define a science.

Sociology relies on systematic observation of social phenomena: The use of various research methods, such as analysis of existing data.

Sociologists propose hypotheses based on theories and test them through empirical research.

Question 8

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Why can sociology not be considered a science?

Answer 8

Sociology lacks the ability to make precise predictions about human behavior and social phenomena because they are influenced by a wide range of complex factors that are difficult to predict. Whereas natural sciences often deal with deterministic and predictable phenomena.

Sociology deals with subjective experiences that vary across individuals and cultures therefore it can be difficult to establish objective and universally valid explanations.

Sociology often deals with sensitive and morally charged topics, such as inequality which may make it difficult to maintain objectivity - a key principles of scientific inquiry.

Question 9

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Explain the positivist view on whether sociology should be considered a science.

Answer 9

Positivists argue that sociology is a science and should employ scientific methodologies, such as measurement, and experimentation, to study social phenomena because they provide empirical evidence to generate reliable and objective knowledge about society.

Positivists assert that sociology, as a science, should aim to predict and control social phenomena.

Through systematic observation and analysis of data, sociologists can identify patterns in social behavior and establish general principles that apply to society as a whole.

Question 10

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Durkheim is a positivist.
How does his study of suicide 1897 relate to the argument that sociology is a science?

Answer 10

He used quantitative data from official statistics on suicide rates, which allowed him to analyze patterns and correlations across different social groups and contexts.

Durkheim identified two key social factors that influence suicide rates: social integration and social regulation.

Durkheim classified different types of suicide based on the levels of social integration and regulation. e.g. Egoistic suicide occurs when individuals feel detached from society.

Question 11

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Explain the interpretivist view on whether sociology should be considered a science.

Answer 11

Interpretivists argue that sociology should not be a science because of its subjective nature - They argue that social reality is constructed through the meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to their actions and social structures.

A science would not allow a researcher to find the cultural meanings, and social interactions that shape human behavior.

Interpretivists emphasise the importance of empathetic understanding (Verstehen) - by appreciating the subjective experiences and interpretations of individuals, social phenomena can be understood.

Question 12

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Becker is an interpretivist
How does his study “Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance” relate to the argument that sociology should not be a science?

Answer 12

Becker explores how certain individuals or groups are labeled as deviant by society and how this labeling process affects their identities and social interactions.

The study employs qualitative research methods such as participant observation, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals involved in deviant behavior.

This highlights the importance of understanding the subjective meanings attached to behaviors and the social dynamics involved.

Question 13

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Explain popper’s falsification view on whether sociology should be considered a science.

Answer 13

Popper argues that a theory is scientific if it is falsifiable - it can be disproved. For example, it must be possible to encounter evidence that would contradict or refute it.

When a theory is falsified, it is rejected or modified which leads to the development of new theories that are more accurate. This iterative process improves scientific knowledge over time.

For example, in the study “The Effect of Parental Divorce on Children’s Academic Achievement” Contrary to the hypothesis, the study finds no significant difference in academic achievement between children from divorced families and those from intact families.

Question 14

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Explain keat and urry’s realism view on whether sociology should be considered a science.

Answer 14

They argue that sociology should be seen as a science, but one that is distinct from the natural sciences.

They are an advocate for ontological realism - this is the idea that there is an external social reality that is beyond human perception and interpretation.

Therefore, sociology should adopt scientific methodology - empirical observation and measurement - to recognise the subjective aspects of social life.

Question 15

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Explain Kuhn’s paradigm view on whether sociology should be considered a science.

Answer 15

Kuhn defines a scientific paradigm as a set of shared beliefs, assumptions and methods that provide a framework for scientists to understand and investigate phenomena.

Normal science refers to the phase where scientists conduct research, refine theories, and solve puzzles which may lead to anomalies or unexpected findings that challenge the paradigm’s ability to explain certain phenomena.

This may trigger a scientific revolution where a new paradigm emerges that provides a different framework for understanding and explaining the phenomena that the old paradigm could not account for.

In sociology new findings within society can lead to the establishment of new perspectives - The conflict theory paradigm emphasises the conflicts between different social groups whereas the functionalism paradigm focuses on the interrelationships and functions of different social institutions within society.

Question 16

Sociology and values

What are values?

Answer 16

The beliefs, opinions and prejudices that everyone holds and are influenced by the social structures we belong to.

Question 17

Sociology and values

Why should sociology be value free?

Answer 17

Objectivity requires minimising personal biases which allows for a more generalizable and unbiased study of social phenomena.

Values and ideologies can shape our perceptions and interpretations of social phenomena. By striving for value neutrality it prevents the distortion of findings and interpretations.

Question 18

Sociology and values

Why should sociology be value-led?

Answer 18

Sociology emphasizes the importance of collaborating with communities and involving them in the research process.

This approach recognises the value of local knowledge, experiences, and perspectives.

Question 19

Sociology and values

Explain the positivist view on whether sociology should be value free.

Answer 19

They argue that sociology should be value-free by by adopting objective methods to study social facts which are empirical.

Collecting empirical data will allow the researcher to eliminate bias that may influence the research process and the interpretation of data.

The lack of bias in research will produce reproducible valid data that is credible.

E.g. In the 1970s, Safilios-Rothschild conducted a quantitative study examining discrimination against women in hiring practices and found clear evidence that female applicants experienced lower callback rates compared to male applicants, demonstrating employment discrimination.

Question 20

Sociology and values

Explain Weber’s view on whether sociology should be value free.

Answer 20

Weber argues that sociology should not strive to be completely value-free but should instead embrace a methodological value neutrality.

Weber acknowledges that values play a crucial role in shaping social life and so will inevitably influence the research process. Therefore, researchers cannot completely separate their personal values from their work, as their values shape their choice of research topics and the interpretation of data.

He believes researchers should strive for a balanced analysis that takes into account both empirical observations and the subjective meanings attributed to social actions.

Question 21

Sociology and values

Explain the interpretivist view on whether sociology should be value free.

Answer 21

They argue that sociology cannot and should not be value-free, as values shape social reality.

They argue that understanding social phenomena requires examining the subjective experiences, cultural contexts, and symbolic meanings attributed to them by individuals therefore, values cannot be separated from the research process.

They argue that researchers should embrace their own values as part of the research process and engage in value-laden discussions to understand diverse perspectives and social realities better.

E.g. in Goldberg’s (2006) study of the effects of welfare reform in the U.S, she openly criticized the reforms, arguing they threatened to entrench deeper poverty. - demonstrates how research might shed light on social justice issues.

Question 22

Sociology and values

Explain Becker’s view on whether sociology should be value free.

Answer 22

He argues that complete value neutrality is an unrealistic goal for sociology because they guide the research process e.g. choosing topics Therefore, he advocates for critical awareness of these values.

By acknowledging values or biases, sociologists can engage in more honest and accountable research, promoting transparency and intellectual integrity.

Question 23

Sociology and values

Explain the Value Laden Approach on whether sociology should be value free.

Answer 23

This approach argues that sociology should embrace and engage with values.

Sociologists cannot separate themselves from their own values and biases, as these shape their perspectives and influence their understanding of social phenomena.

They emphasise the need for sociologists to engage with diverse perspectives in their research to provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of social phenomena.

E.g. In the 1970s, sociologist Sara Evans deliberately chose to focus her research on the burgeoning feminist movement because she supported their aims of achieving greater equality and empowerment for women.

Question 24

Sociology and social policy

What is social policy?

Answer 24

The laws and acts made by the government which aim to improve society or deal with a social problem.

They reflect the actions undertaken by governments to address social issues.

Question 25

Sociology and social policy

What are sociological problems?

Answer 25

Problems of society that sociologists use to direct their research of patterns and trends of society.

Question 26

Sociology and social policy

What are the social problems?

Answer 26

Social behaviour that causes public friction and misery, and requires a collective response.

Question 27

Sociology and social policy

Why are social policies important to sociologists?

Answer 27

They help sociologists identify areas of inequality, discrimination, and social injustice, and analyze the root causes and consequences of these problems.

Social policies often shape the research agenda of sociologists as they provide sociologists with valuable data for evidence-based research of social phenomena,

By studying social policies, sociologists can identify areas where change is needed and contribute to the development of more inclusive policies.

Sociologists examine the intended and unintended consequences of policies on social groups which help policymakers and sociologists understand how policies shape social structures and individual lives or whether they contribute to positive social change or perpetuate existing inequalities.

Question 28

Sociology and social policy

What is the functionalist view on social policy?

Answer 28

Functionalists argue that social policies fulfill specific functions and contribute to the overall functioning of society

Policies promote social cohesion e.g. public education and welfare programs ensure that individuals have equal access to basic resources and opportunities which maintains social order.

Social policies are developed to meet the various social needs of individuals and groups in society. By fulfilling these needs, social policies help ensure the smooth functioning of society and prevent social unrest that may arise from unmet needs.

For example, section one of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 parents who are legally responsible for a child must provide food, medical aid and lodging for their children.

Question 29

Sociology and social policy

What is the New right view on social policy?

Answer 29

The New Right advocates for minimal state intervention in social policy. It argues that excessive government involvement leads to inefficiency and dependency on the state.

They argue that individuals should take personal responsibility for their own welfare and well-being, rather than relying on the state or social programs.

E.g. According to HM Revenue & Customs families won’t be paid an additional child benefit for more than 2 children.

The focus is on enabling individuals to make their own decisions and pursue their own interests, rather than being dictated by state-imposed solutions.

Question 30

Sociology and social policy

What is the Marxist view on social policy?

Answer 30

Marxists argue that social policies protect the interests of the capitalist class and maintain their control over the means of production.

Social policies, such as labor laws and regulations, are seen as mechanisms that ensure the continuation of capitalist exploitation and the accumulation of wealth by the ruling class.

E.g. National Minimum Wage Act 1998 sets out the minimum amount of pay a worker is entitled to per hour.

They suggest that policies such as social welfare programs or poverty alleviation measures only temporarly provide relief for marginalised groups by addressing the symptoms of inequality rather than addressing its root causes.

Question 31

Sociology and social policy

What is the Feminist view on social policy?

Answer 31

Feminists argue that social policy ignore the social and economic disadvantages faced by women, including limited access to education and career prospects.

They argue that social policy maintans patriarchy as childcare costs and lack of availability requires a parent to stay home, usually the mother due to gender pay gaps. This maintains their responsibility for domestic labor.

E.g. The Statutory Maternity Pay Regulations 1986 established that a woman won’t get maternity leave pay after 39 weeks of leave.

Feminists argue that social policies should aim to reduce gender inequalities by addressing gender wage gaps, promoting women’s representation in decision-making positions etc.

Question 32

Sociology and social policy

What is the postmodernist view on social policy?

Answer 32

Postmodernists emphasize the diverse nature of society therefore, they argue that social policy should recognise and accommodate the diversity of individuals and groups, including their experiences, identities, and perspectives.

Postmodernists highlight how social policies are constantly evolving and being shaped by ever-changing social phenomena.

E.g. In 1885, the Criminal Law Amendment Act made consent in homosexual acts criminal. However, the Sexual Offences Act 1967 decriminalised such behaviour between those aged 21 and over and in 2000 it was reduced to 16.

Postmodernism emphasizes the idea that individuals are active participants in shaping social realities and therefore, social policy.

Question 33

Sociology and social policy

How does electoral popularity influence social policy?

Answer 33

When political parties or candidates seek public support to win elections, they shape their policy priorities based on the preferences and demands of voters.

To do this they make specific policy promises during election campaigns to attract voters. They may prioritize social issues that resonate with the electorate, such as education, or income inequality.

E.g. The labour party prioritises policies that guarantee a minimum standard of living for everyone and heavy taxation of large incomes and of wealth.

The popularity of these policy proposals can influence parties’ agendas and shape their policy priorities if they are elected to power.

Question 34

Sociology and social policy

How does globalisation influence social policy?

Answer 34

The increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries and societies which can lead to the convergence and diffusion of social policies across countries.

As countries interact and learn from each other, they may adopt similar policy approaches which may contribute to the proliferation of global norms.

E.g. the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals which include policies such as gender equality have been adopted by many countries.

These global norms can influence social policy by putting pressure on governments to align their policies with international standards and expectations.

Question 35

Sociology and social policy

How does funding influence social policy?

Answer 35

Funding availability can shape the design and implementation of social programs because the amount of funding allocated to a program can determine its accessibility and duration.

Adequate funding allows for comprehensive program implementation, and the provision of adequate resources and infrastructure, whereas insufficient funding may result in service gaps, reduced quality of services or even discontinuation.

E.g. Education Action Zones (EAZ), introduced by New Labour 1997-2010 attracted limited sponsorship so was not continued beyond its initial 5 year term.

Funding plays a crucial role in shaping social policy as it has a direct impact on the resources available for implementing and sustaining social programs and initiatives.

Question 36

Sociology and social policy

How does ideological preferences influence social policy?

Answer 36

Ideological preferences guide policymakers in determining the goals and priorities of social policy.

Different ideologies may prioritize different aspects of society e.g. Marxists prioritise addressing social class inequality.

These preferences influence the issues that policymakers choose to address and the strategies used to address them.

E.g. a conservative ideology may emphasize limited government intervention whereas a progressive ideology may advocate for more extensive government involvement.

These ideological preferences influence the design and implementation of social policies.