Research Methods

Question 1

Define Hypothesis and the difference between a directional and a non directional hypothesis

Answer 1

A clear precise statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated.

Directional: States the direction of the difference or relationship

Non-directional: Does not state the direction of the difference or realtionship

Question 2

When should each type of Hypothesis be used

Answer 2

Directional: When previous research or findings suggests a particular outcome.

Non-directional: When no theory or previous research or findings from earlier studies were contradictory.

Question 3

Define variables and the difference between IV and DV

Answer 3

Any ‘thing’ that can change or vary within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another

IV: Some aspect that is manipulated by the researcher or changes naturally so the effect on the DV can be measured

DV: The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV

Question 4

Define experimental method and operationalisation

Answer 4

Experimental method: Involves the manipulation of an IV to measure the effect on the DV. May be Lab, field, natural or quasi.

Operationalisation: Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

Question 5

Define both extraneous and confounding variables

Answer 5

EV: Any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if it is not controlled.

CV: A kind of EV but the key features is that a CV varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any changes in the DV are due to the IV or the CV

Question 6

Define demand characteristics and investigator effects

Answer 6

DC: Any cue from the researcher or research situation that may be interpreted by participants revealing the purpose and possibly changing their behaviour

IE: Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour in the research outcome (the DV). Eg - The design of the study to the selection of and interaction with participants

Question 7

Define randomisation and standardisation

Answer 7

Randomisation: The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions.

Standardisation: Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

Question 8

Define independent measures vs repeated measures

Answer 8

Independent: Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition

Repeated: All participants take part in all conditions

Question 9

Explain matched pairs

Answer 9

Where pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may affect the DV

Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other condition B

Question 10

Define random allocation and counterbalancing

Answer 10

Random allocation: An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.

Counterbalancing: An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design; half the participants experience the conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order.

Question 11

What is a pilot study

Answer 11

A small scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures, materials, measuring scales etc work

The aim is also to allow the researcher to make changes or modifications if needed.

Question 12

Define naturalistic observation vs controlled observations

Answer 12

Naturalistic: Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur

Controlled: Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment

Question 13

Define covert vs overt observation

Answer 13

Covert: Participants behaviours is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

Overt: Participants behaviours is watched and recorded without their knowledge and consent

Question 14

Define participant vs non-participant observation

Answer 14

Participant: The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording

Non-participant: The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording

Question 15

What are behavioural categories

Answer 15

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable (operationalisation)

Question 16

Define event and time sampling

Answer 16

Event: A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs.

Time: A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame, say every two seconds

Question 17

Define questionnaire and interview

Answer 17

Questionnaire: A set of written questions used to assess a persons thoughts and / or experiences

Interview: A live eon counter where one person asks a set of questions to assess an interviewees thoughts and / or experiences

Question 18

List the 4 types of experiment

Answer 18

Lab: In a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the DV

Field: Takes place in a natural setting where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV

Natural: Where the change in the IV is not by the researcher but would have happened without them. The researcher records the effects on on a DV they decided on.

Quasi: A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone, the variables simply exist such as being old or young.

Question 19

List and define the 3 types of interview

Answer 19

Structured: Interviews made up of pre-determined set question that are asked in a fixed order

Unstructrued: There are no set questions just a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed and the conversation is free-flowing. The interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate answers

Semi-structured: This falls between the other two as there is a list of questions in advance but the interviewers are also free to ask follow-up questions on answers

Question 20

Define open v closed questions

Answer 20

Open: Questions for which there is no fixed choice of response determined by the question setter.

Closed: Questions for which there is a fixed choice of response determined by the question setter.

Question 21

List and define the 3 types of question (scales / options)

Answer 21

Likert scales: A scale in which the respondent indicates their agreement with a statement using a scale of usually five points (E.g - Strongly agree to strongly disagree)

Rating scales: Gets respondents to identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic

Fixed-choice option: Includes a lost of possible options and respondents are required to indicate those that apply to them

Question 22

Define correlation and co-variables

Answer 22

Correlation: A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables called co-variables

Co-variables: The variables investigated within a correlation. They are not referred to as the IV & DV as correlations investigates the association between variables rather then cause & effect.

Question 23

List and define the 3 types of correlations

Answer 23

Positive correlation: As one co-variable increases so does the other

Negative correlation: As one co-variable increases the other decreases

Zero correlation: There is no relationship between the co-variables

Question 24

What is peer review

Answer 24

The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality.

Question 25

What are the 3 main aims of peer review

Answer 25

1. To allocate research funding - may be co-ordinated by government-run fundingorganisations 2. To validate the quality and relevance of research - all elemetns of research are assessed for quality and accuracy 3. To suggest amendments or improvements - reviewers may suggest minor revisions of the work and thereby improve the report.

Question 26

What are 3 evaluations of peer review

Answer 26

Anonymity - may use this to criticise as they are competing for the same funding Publication bias - a natural tendency for editors to publish headline gabbing findings meaning research which doesn’t count as this is ignored Burying groundbreaking research - Established scientists tend to be critical of research that contradicts their own view and favourable of what matches so findings that chime with current opinions are likely to be passed.

Question 28

What are 5 types of samples

Answer 28

Random sample: All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected Systematic sample: When every nth member of the target population is selected, a sampling frame is produced, a list of people in the target population organised into a specific order before a sampling system is nominated. Stratified sample: A sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population or the wider population. Opportunity sample: Simply selecting anyone who happens to be willing and available, asking whoever is around at the time. Volunteer sample: involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample.

Question 29

Evaluate random and opportunity sample

Answer 29

Random + Unbiased as CVs and EVs should be equally divided between the different groups enhancing internal validity - Is difficult and time-consuming to conduct and you still may end up a unrepresentative sample. Opportunity + Convenient and much less costly in terms of time and money - Is unrepresentative as it draws on a specific area and researcher bias as to who they avoid

Question 30

Evaluate systematic and stratified samples

Answer 30

Systematic + Is objective as once the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen - Is time-consuming and in the end participants may refuse to take part, resulting in a volunteer sample Stratified + Produces a representative sample because it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of the population - The identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different so complete representation of the target population is not possible

Question 31

Evaluate volunteer sample

Answer 31

+ Collecting this sample is easy as it requires minimal input from the researcher and so is less time consuming than other forms of sampling and participants may be more engaged - Asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of person that is one who is curious and more likely to please the researcher which then might affect how far findings can be generalised.

Question 32

Define ethical issues and the 4 types

Answer 32

These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data. - Informed consent: Making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures and their rights including the right to withdraw and what their data will be used for. - Deception: Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation. - Protection from harm: Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives (physical and physiological) - Privacy and confidentiality; participants should have the right to control information about themselves

Question 33

Define the BPS code of ethics

Answer 33

A quasi-legal document produced by the British psychological society (BPS) that instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is not acceptable when dealing with participants. The code is built around four major principles; respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.