Research methods Flashcards

Question

How do we formulate a hypotheses?

Answer 1

From the aim of our experiment we formulate our hypotheses.

Answer 2

A hypothesis is an exact, precise, testable prediction of what we expect to find in an experiment.

Answer 3

A statement predicting that we will find a difference between how the 2 conditions of the IV affect the DV. E.g. there will be a significant difference in driving performance between participants who have and have not consumed alcohol.

Answer 4

This means that they do not make a prediction about the direction of results. i.e. they don't predict that 1 of the groups is going to do better or worse than the other, they just predict that some kind of difference will occur.

Answer 5

A hypothesis that does make a prediction about the direction of the results of the experiment.

Answer 6

Participants who have consumed alcohol will show significantly poorer driving performance than participants who have not consumed alcohol.

Answer 7

If the experimenter strongly expects that the results will go in a certain direction or previous research indicates this he may choose to apply a direction hypothesis.

Answer 8

In any experiment we always have at least 2 groups of participants performing in at least 2 experimental conditions. The ways in which we allocate participants is the experimental design.

Answer 9

An experimental design where participants are split into 2 groups, each group performing in 1 condition only.

Answer 10

Participant variables, the fact that individual differences between participants may affect the DV without us being ware of it will reduce the validity of our results. It requires more participants than a repeated measures design.

Answer 11

An advantage of this design is that we will not encounter Order Effects.

Answer 12

By having larger samples in our experiments and by randomly allocating participants to the 2 conditions.

Answer 13

An experimental design, where all participants perform in the 1st condition and then perform in the 2nd condition. Allowing us to directly compare participants' performance across the 2 conditions.

Answer 14

Order effects, when participants perform in condition 1 then condition 2 their performance in the 2nd condition may either improve due to practise or ego worse due to boredom or tiredness. Participants may work out the aim of the study and exhibit demand characteristics.

Answer 15

Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect (improved in task set due to practise) or boredom effect on second task.

Answer 16

Counterbalancing, this involves 50% of the participants performing in condition 1 first, then condition 2, while the other 50% of participants perform in condition 2 first then condition 1. This is thought to balance out the problem of order effects.

Answer 17

The advantage of this design is that there is no possibility of participant variables threatening the validity of the study.

Answer 18

An experimental design, where before the study begins we find participants who we can match with each other in terms of relevant characteristics such as age, gender, IQ etc. The study then runs as an independent groups design.

Answer 19

This design overcomes the problem or order effects as participants don't complete both tasks and participant variables because each participant is matched with another participant in the other condition participant variables are less of a problem.

Answer 20

The disadvantage of this design is it may be costly, time consuming and difficult to find participants who match precisely.

Answer 21

Validity generally refers to the truthfulness and accuracy of our findings.

Answer 22

It is highly important because if experiments are not well designed and run, findings may be inaccurate and lead us to draw false conclusions.

Answer 23

Internal and External validity

Answer 24

This related to whether we are really measuring what we think we are measuring. In any experiment we are trying to isolate the effect of the IV on the DV. Therefore, we need to ensure that no other unwanted, uncontrolled extraneous variables are affecting the DV without our knowledge.

Answer 25

If an extraneous variable does affect our final results, we refer to it as a confounding (i.e. confusing) variable.

Answer 26

This related to the extent that the findings of the study can be generalised beyond the research setting.

Answer 27

Ecological Validity Population Validity Temporal Validity

Answer 28

This relates to the problem of whether studies conducted under highly controlled, artificial, lab situations can produced findings that can be generalised to everyday life , or whether behaviour shown by participants will be artificial. E.g. in the drink-driving study, participants use a driving simulator which is not really similar to driving in a real car on a real road.

Answer 29

If we only use small or biased/unrepresentative samples of participants, we may not be able to generalise findings to human behaviour in general.

Answer 30

If studies were conducted a long time ago, it can be argued that their findings are not relevant to the present day. E.g. Asch's conformity study was conducted in 1950's America and it has argued that the climate of America at this time was particularly conformist. Social change since the 50's has meant that people are now far more non-conformist and indepedent.

Answer 31

Extraneous variables are variables which the experimenter has failed to eliminate or control which are affecting the DV without us being aware of it. This threatens the validity of the study and the accuracy of our findings.

Answer 32

Random allocation of participants to experimental conditions. To avoid any bias on the behalf of the researcher, participants should always be divided into groups randomly. Standardisation of instructions and procedures. Participants should be given exactly the same instructions as each other and go through exactly the same procedure as each other to avoid differences in these acting as extraneous variables. Participant variables. Participants' age, intelligence, personality and so on should be controlled across the different groups taking part. Situational variables. The experimental setting and surrounding environment must be controlled. This may include the time of day, the temperature or noise effects. Order effects Participants may improve or get bored performing in different conditions. This can be controlled by using independent groups, matched participants or counter balancing. Demand Characteristics or Investigator Effects. A control group is a group of participants from who act as a baseline from which differences in the experimental group are measured.

Answer 33

Face validity Content Validity Concurrent validity

Answer 34

Is the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as being able to measure the concept it claims to measure. In other words, a test can be said to have face validity if it "looks like" it is going to measure what it is supposed to measure.

Answer 35

Content validity involves independent experts being asked to assess the validity, accuracy and appropriateness of instruments and tests used to measure a variable. E.g. agreeing that a particular IQ test is a valid measure of intelligence.

Answer 36

Concurrent validity involves comparing the validity of a new test/measure against an established test/measure whose validity is already known and trusted. For example the results of a new form of IQ test could be tested against an old, established IQ test. If scores correlate between the 2 tests they are said to have concurrent validity.

Answer 37

The fact that an experiment is a social situation means that behaviour may be affected by the presence of others (experimenter and other participants) and the expectations that participants have.

Answer 38

Demand characteristics refers to the fact that participants realise they are in an experiment and are being observed and tested. They may, therefore, alter their behaviour either to behave in ways they think the experimenter wants them to behave in or according to how they think they should behave. Participants may try to work out the aim of experiment and modify their behaviour accordingly. They may also show 'social desirability bias'- giving response they believe are correct or moral, rather than answering honestly.

Answer 39

Investigator effects refers to the fact the experimenter may consciously or unconsciously give hints or clues to research participants about how he wants or expects them to behave.

Answer 40

The issue of if we conduct the study again will the study produce similar results.

Answer 41

Inter-rater reliability Test-retest reliability

Answer 42

This means that observers are all defining behaviours and recording observations in the same way as each other. Thus, before the study begins observers should be trained through the use of, for example, a training video where they learn and are tested on how to define and categories behaviours in the same way as each other.

Answer 43

By analysing the correlation between different observers score on the same behaviour. This will produce a correlation coefficient e.g. +0.96= a strong positive correlation (they are rating things in the same way as each other).

Answer 44

Reliability of a test or questionnaire can be tested by asking a participant to complete the test/questionnaire, then complete it again 2 weeks and a month later. If answers are similar over a period of time, then the test/questionnaire can be said to have reliability.

Answer 45

By analysing the correlation between different test scores. This will produce a correlation coefficient e.g. +0.96 a strong positive correlation (high similarity between different test scores)

Answer 46

A pilot study is a small scale version of the main study that is conducted in advance.

Answer 47

To ensure: The procedures of the study will run smoothly That equipment/tests are functioning accurately That participants understand instructions That all extraneous variables are controlled.

Answer 48

High degree of control, laboratory experiments can control all varies in the experiment. The IV and DV can be precisely defined (operationalised) and measured to assess cause-effect relationships. For example the amount of caffeine given IV and reaction time DV. This leads to greater accuracy and objectivity Replication, other researchers can easily repeat/replicate the experiment and check results for reliability. This is much easier in a controlled laboratory situation as opposed to a field experiment conducted in the real world.

Answer 49

Lack of ecological validity (This relates to the problem of whether studies conducted under highly controlled, artificial, lab situations can produced findings that can be generalised to everyday life , or whether behaviour shown by participants will be artificial) Demand characteristics ( Demand characteristics refers to the fact that participants realise they are in an experiment and are being observed and tested. They may, therefore, alter their behaviour either to behave in ways they think the experimenter wants them to behave in or according to how they think they should behave. Participants may try to work out the aim of experiment and modify their behaviour accordingly. They may also show 'social desirability bias'- giving response they believe are correct or moral, rather than answering honestly.

Answer 50

A field experiment is an experiment that is carried out in the real world rather than under artificial laboratory conditions. Participants are exposed to 'set-up' social situations to see how they respond. The 'naive' participants are unaware they are taking part in an experiment.

Answer 51

As the experiment is conducted in the real world levels of ecological validity are increased meaning that we can generalise behaviour to real-life behaviour. As participants do not know they are involved in an experiment they will not show demand characteristics. (WHEN DOING LONG QUESTION EXPLAIN DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS AND ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY)

Answer 52

As the study is not conducted under tightly controlled laboratory conditions there is a greater chance that extraneous variables will influence the DV without the researcher being aware of this. Field experiments often involve breaking ethical guidelines, e.g. failing to get participants consent, deceiving participants, failing to inform them of their right to withdraw or debriefing them etc.

Answer 53

This is a not a true experiment as the psychologist does not manipulate or 'set up' a situation to which participants are exposed to. Rather the psychologist observers a change in the natural world (the IV) and tries to assess whether it has an effect on another variable (the DV). For example, psychologists have looked at the introduction of TV into remote communities (the 2 conditions of the IV are (i) no TV, and (ii) TV) and measured whether this had an effect on aggressiveness among children (DV).

Answer 54

As the experiment is conducted in the real world levels of ecological validity are increased. As participants do not know they are involved in an experiment they will not show demand characteristics. (EXPLAIN DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS AND ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY IN FULL IF LONG ANSWER QUESTION)

Answer 55

As the study is not conducted under tightly controlled laboratory conditions there is a greater chance that extraneous variables will influence the DV without the researcher being aware of this. Natural experiments may involve breaking ethical guidelines e.g. failing to get participants consent to be observed, failing to inform them of their right to withdraw or debriefing them.

Answer 56

A correlation study involves measuring the relationship between 2 co-variables e.g. height and weight, stress and illness.

Answer 57

Positive Negative Neutral

Answer 58

As 1 variable increases do does the other. E.g. stress and illness

Answer 59

As 1 variable increases the other decreased. E.g. age and dependency on mother.

Answer 60

No relationship between the co-variables. E.g. IQ and height.

Answer 61

You need to operationalise the 2 co-variables and their relationship can then be plotted on a scattergram for each participant. The general pattern revealed should indicate whether the relationship is positive or negative and how weak or strong the relationship is.

Answer 62

A number somewhere between -1 and +1 which will indicate the exact direction and strength of relationship between the 2 co-variables.

Answer 63

Just below 0

Answer 64

Just above 1

Answer 65

Hypotheses for correlation studies predict there will be a 'relationship' between 2 co-variables. Hypotheses can be direction or non-directional depending on whether or not past research indicates whether we should expect to find a relationship (either positive or negative).

Answer 66

Correlation studies allow us to assess the precise direction and strength of relationship between 2 co-variables using correlation coefficients. Correlation studies are a valuable preliminary (initial research tool. They allow us to identify relationships between variables that we may then decide to investigate in more detail through experimentation.

Answer 67

Correlation studies only tell us that there is some kind of relationship between 2 variables, they do not tell us about cause-effect relationships, and thus they are a weaker methodology than lab experiments. We may sometimes find a correlation between 2 variables by pure chance, even when no real relationship exists between the variables, thus they may be misleading. For example, there is an almost perfect negative correlation between Nigerian iron exports and the UK birth rate between 1870 and 1920 even though these factors are completely unrelated.

Answer 68

Observations simply involve observing behaviour in the natural environment.

Answer 69

Overt Covert Participant Non-participant

Answer 70

The psychologist's presence is made known to the group being studies. This may lead to demand characteristics and participants behaving in unnatural ways.

Answer 71

The psychologist's presence is hidden. Either he appears as a normal member of the public or his presence is concealed in some way (e.g. CCTV camera). Although this overcomes the problem of demand characteristics, there are ethical issues to do with deception, lack of consent and invasion of privacy.

Answer 72

The psychologist joins the group being studies. This may be covert or overt.

Answer 73

The psychologist remains outside the group being studied. This may be covert or overt.

Answer 74

Naturalistic observation, natural observation in the natural environment Structured observations, a more objective way in which quantify behaviours are observed in an artificial manipulated environment.

Answer 75

Recording the number of times a particular event occurs.

Answer 76

Recording what is occurring at certain time intervals e.g. every minute.

Answer 77

Event sampling Time sampling

Answer 78

Inter-rater reliability

Answer 79

There are occasions in which it might be useful for the researcher to gather an insight into where there are behaviour trends that occur over particular time periods.

Answer 80

There are high levels of ecological validity and no demand characteristics. Participants are unaware that they are being observed and they are in a natural environment, thus we are observing behaviour as it naturally occurs.

Answer 81

Ethical issues arise concerning invasion of privacy, lack of consent and lack of right to withdraw.

Answer 82

The psychologist can question participants and get a much more in depth insight into the behaviours, beliefs and motivations of the group being studied. Thus, a much deeper, richer, descriptive picture of behaviour is produced.

Answer 83

The researchers present might influence the participants' behaviour due to evaluation apprehension.

Answer 84

It is possible to inform participants in advance and obtain informed consent.

Answer 85

With overt observations participants may exhibit demand characteristics and act in socially-appropriate or otherwise unnatural ways.

Answer 86

Investigator effects and evaluation apprehension are less likely as the researcher is not visible.

Answer 87

Due to a lack of proximity the researcher might overlook or miss behaviours of interest

Answer 88

High ecological validity as the researcher records naturally occurring behaviour in a natural environment, without any outside interference from the researcher.

Answer 89

Cannot be replicated to check reliability, as the researcher is not in control of variables.

Answer 90

Can be replicated to check reliability, as the researcher is in control of variables and therefore can repeat the method as they wish.

Answer 91

Low ecological validity as the researcher records behaviours in an artificial (manipulated) environment, with potential outside interference from the researcher.

Answer 92

The term self-report simply means that the participant is reporting on their own perception/view of themselves- either using a questionnaire or an interview.

Answer 93

Social desirability bias may be an issue in that if a participant knows their answers will be read/heard by someone else they may say what they think is socially acceptable/desirable rather than the truth. Self report studies are also subjective in that the individuals perception of themselves may be quite different from how others view them.

Answer 94

Questionnaire surveys and interviews

Answer 95

To combat this, questionnaires can be kept anonymous and confidential.

Answer 96

Closed ended Open ended

Answer 97

A close ended questionnaire is one which allow us to produce quantitative data e.g statistical statement such as 35% of participants agreed. ``` An example close ended question is: I intended to vote for Donald Trump Strong Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree strongly So we can say e.g. 35% participants agreed. ```

Answer 98

A opened questionnaire is one which produces lengthier, that are descriptive qualitative data. E.g. Explain why you intend to vote for Donald Trump.

Answer 99

Clear, concise, non-ambiguous and easily understandable, and will be interpreted by all participants in the same way as each other.

Answer 100

Through test-retest reliability

Answer 101

Close-ended questionnaires are capable of providing large amounts of information from large amounts of people fairly cheaply and quickly. Close-ended questions can be statistically analysed to allow us to make statements about the percentages of people who hold certain beliefs etc.

Answer 102

They can suggest ideas that the respondent would not otherwise have. Respondents with no opinion or no knowledge can and may answer anyway.

Answer 103

Open-ended questions allow us to gain an in depth insight in participants' personal opinions and the motives that underlie behaviours and beliefs.

Answer 104

Open-ended questions can be difficult to interpret and analyse as participants may give lengthy answers. This makes it hard to understand broad patterns and trends in participants' beliefs and behaviours.

Answer 105

If socially sensitive questions are asked participants may give socially appropriate responses. E.g. if a questionnaire asks whether someone holds racist beliefs it is unlikely they will admit to this to a researcher. This can be overcome by making questionnaires anonymous and confidential.

Answer 106

To prevent socially desirability bias To ensure the that socially sensitive questions are answered without fear of repercussions.

Answer 107

Interviews can be conducted with individuals or groups either face to face or telephone/internet. The respondent can describe their response to questions in depth and in detail and say what they want to say rather than filling out pre-set answers.

Answer 108

Structured Unstructured

Answer 109

A pre-set list of questions is asked.

Answer 110

The interview progresses as more of an on-going conversation between interviewer and interviewee..

Answer 111

Interviews provide richly detailed qualitative descriptions of participants' subjective (personal) understanding of their behaviour, beliefs and motivations. With open-ended questions, interviewees may be able to suggest and shed light on further areas of research and interest relating to the topic they are being interviewed about. Structured interviews allow all participants to be asked the same questions, making general patterns in answers easier to analyse and keep the interview limited to the subject matter the interviewer wants to cover.

Answer 112

If socially sensitive questions are asked participants may give socially-appropriate responses. E.g if an interviewer asks whether someone holds racist beliefs it is unlikely they will admit to this. Open-ended questions can be difficult to interpret and analyse as participants may give lengthy, personal answers. This makes it harder to analyse broad patterns and trends in participants' beliefs and behaviours.

Answer 113

These are longitudinal studies (studies conducted over a long period of time) which focus in great detail or an individual or a small group.

Answer 114

They are often used in the field psychopathology and child development.

Answer 115

They include a variety of methods such as unstructured interviews and observations.

Answer 116

Case studies provide richly detailed descriptions of participants' subjective (personal) understanding of their behaviour, beliefs and motivations. Case Studies usually follow the progress and changes an individual goes through over time.

Answer 117

Case studies are associated with problems of subjectivity and personal interpretation on the behalf of the psychologist. E.g. The psychologist may be biased in their viewpoint and interpretation of events and behaviour. The fact they are only carried out on one individual or one group means that case studies suffer a lack of reliability and generalisability.

Answer 118

This is a technique where researchers identify themes or behavioural categories and count how many times they occur. It is often used with written or visual material such as diaries, magazines, newspapers, films etc. A coding system of categories will be developed whereby we count certain times a particular piece of content arises. For example, we might ask mothers with children who have just started primary school to keep a diary of their child's response to questions then count how many times categories, questions such as 'child crying', 'child showing clingy behaviour', ' child showing anger to mother' occur.

Answer 119

It allows qualitative data (writing or visual material) to be put into a qualitative form (counting behaviours), so that statistical analysis can take place and data can be represented in tables or graphs.

Answer 120

Constructing a coding system involves the risk of an investigator imposing their own meaning on the data. The investigator might choose coding categories they think are important and overlook categories which actually are important. Thus, there may be problems of subjectivity and personal bias with content analysis.

Answer 121

It is important to select participants carefully when conducting research to ensure the study has population validity.

Answer 122

The term population refers to all the people within a certain category whom we wish to study. E.g. all schizophrenics, all 5-11 year olds, all pregnant women etc.

Answer 123

From this population we draw a smaller sample. Ideally, we want our sample to be fairly large and to be representative of the population as a whole, thus it must have a good cross-section in terms of age, gender, ethnicity etc.

Answer 124

In order to generalise our findings to the population as a whole, the sample needs to be a large, representative, random sample.

Answer 125

Random sampling Volunteer sampling Opportunity sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling

Answer 126

The sample is randomly selected from the population with every member of the target group having an equal chance of being selected for the sample. E.g. By assigning a number to each member, and then selecting from the pool by using a random number generator.

Answer 127

Although this method is truly random it does not guarantee a representative sample.

Answer 128

Participants respond to an advert placed by the researcher e.g. Milgram's obedience study.

Answer 129

Volunteers are likely to make motivated and co-operative participants in research

Answer 130

This method is not random and doesn't guarantee a representative sample as only certain types of people are likely to volunteer.

Answer 131

Potential participants are approached by the researcher and asked whether they would be willing to take part in a study.

Answer 132

Participants are likely to make motivated and cop-operative participants in research Inexpensive to carry out.

Answer 133

This method is not random and doesn't guarantee a representative sample as only certain types of people are likely to agree to take part.

Answer 134

A systematic method is chosen for selecting from a target group, e.g. every fourth person in a list could be used in a sample.

Answer 135

It is unbiased and uses an objective method.

Answer 136

Not random or guaranteed to be representative. Takes time and effort as a complete list of the population is required.

Answer 137

The population is assessed for what proportion of particular characteristics it contains (e.g. age, gender, ethnicity, social class, etc.) and representative numbers of participants possessing these characteristics are randomly sampled (the method) to form the sample.

Answer 138

40 Boys and 60 girls Then sub-divide into age. 20 boys below the age of 16 20 boys above the age of 16 30 girls below the age of 16 30 girls above the age of 16

Answer 139

it is truly representative and random. It avoids the problem of misrepresentation sometimes caused by purely random sampling.

Answer 140

It takes more time and resources to plan. Care must be taken to ensure each key characteristic present in the population is selected across strata, otherwise this will design a biased sample.

Answer 141

The British Psychological Society. (BPS)

Answer 142

Deception Informed consent Right to withdraw Protection from physical and psychological harm Confidentiality

Answer 143

Participants should not be deceived (lied to) or involved in experiments unless they have agreed to take part.

Answer 144

One way of dealing with this is to make sure that the participant is told precisely what will happen in the experiment before requesting that he or she give voluntary informed consent to take part.

Answer 145

In reality, many experiments require some level of deception to avoid demand characteristics, hence it is often difficult tor achieve fully informed consent as the psychologist cannot tell the participants the aim or the validity of the study is limited.

Answer 146

Consent is when you agree to take part in the study, informed consent is when participants know the true aim of the study and consent to take part of it.

Answer 147

Debriefing Presumptive consent. Prior general consent Retrospective consent Parent/Guardian consent

Answer 148

At the end of the experiment participants should be informed about the aims, findings and conclusions of the investigation and the researcher should take steps to reduce any distress that may been caused by the experiment. This may be in the form of counselling.

Answer 149

The general public are surveyed and asked whether they believe that breaking ethical guidelines in a particular study is justified or not. This solution is often used in relation to experiments where participants cannot be asked fo consent as the study requires them to remain naive e.g. field experiments.

Answer 150

Prior general consent is when people volunteer to take part in research at some point in the future. Thus, they serve as a pool of participants who may used at some point in the future.

Answer 151

Retrospective consent involves asking participants for consent after they have participated in the study.

Answer 152

In the case of young children or the mentally ill, parents or guardians can provide consent if they judge a procedure is in the client's best interests, e.g. whether a child with ADD should be prescribed a drug. Approval could also be obtained after consulting professional colleagues e.g. psychiatrists debating whether a depressed patient would benefit from a drug treatment.

Answer 153

Participants should have the right to withdraw from an experiment at any time. They should be informed of this right in the standard briefing instructions given to them before the experiment commences. They have the right to insist that any data they have provided during the experiment should be destroyed.

Answer 154

Participants should be exposed to no more risk than they would encounter in their normal lives. They should also be protected from any kind of psychological harm such as stress, embarrassment or damage to their self-esteem. If participants are showing signs of distress they should be reminded of their right to withdraw.

Answer 155

Information about participants' identifies remain anonymous and confidential. For example Frued, gave his client pseudonyms e.g. Little Hans.

Answer 156

Provide sufficient information on both ethical and methodological issues for participants to make an informed decision. You must also write as it would be read out to participants.

Answer 157

The purpose of the study The length of time required of the participants Details of any parts of the study that participants might find uncomfortable. Details about what will be required of them, and what they will have to do. There is no pressure to take part in the study at all Right to withdraw (They can leave at any time, without giving a reason, keep any money they have been paid, and any data collected on them will be destroyed. Reassurance about protection from harm. Reassurance about confidentiality of the data. They should feel free to ask the researcher any questions at any time. They will receive a full debrief at the end of the programme.

Answer 158

You need to use the details in the description of the study to write an appropriate set of instructions for participants. The instructions should be clear, concise, use formal language and be as straightforward as possible.

Answer 159

Explain the procedures of this study relevant to participants. Include a check of understanding of instructions.

Answer 160

Peer review is the process by which psychological research papers are subjected to Independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field who consider the research in terms of its validity and significance. Such people are generally unpaid. Peer review happens before research is published.

Answer 161

Peer review is an I'm portent part of this process because it provides a way of checking the validity of the research, making a judgement about the creditability of the research, and assessing the quality and appropriateness of the design and methodology. It is a means of preventing incorrect data entering the public domain. This is important to ensure that any funding is being spent correctly.

Answer 162

That any research paper published in a well-respected journal can be taken seriously by fellow researchers and the public.

Answer 163

Peers are in the position to judge the importance of the research in a wider context. They can also assess how original the work is and whether it refers to relevant research by other psychologists. They can then make a recommendation as to whether the research paper should be published in its original form, rejected or revised in some way.

Answer 164

Science is the unbiased observation and measurement of the natural world. It is the only tool humanity has developed for establishing factual truths about the world.

Answer 165

Systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about it, involves interaction between theories, hypotheses and research.

Answer 166

Empiricism Objectivity Replicability Control Theory construction Hypothesis Testing

Answer 167

A feature of the scientific method, empiricism is information gained through direct observation or experiment on physically observable and measurable phenomena rather than by reasoned argument, unfounded beliefs, faith or superstition.

Answer 168

Is a general result that has been observed reliably in systematical empirical research.

Answer 169

A feature of the scientific method, objectivity says that Scientists should strive to be unbiased and non-interpretative in their observations and measurements. Prior expectations and preconceptions should be put aside.

Answer 170

Subjective can be thought as biased, personal and interpretive.

Answer 171

A feature of the scientific method, replicability is a way to demonstrate the validity of any observation or experiment by repeating it. If the outcomes the same, this confirms the truth of the original results, especially if the observations have been made by a different person. In order to achieve such replication it is important for scientists to record their methods carefully so that the same procedures can before followed in the future.

Answer 172

A feature of the scientific method, Scientists seek to demonstrate casual relationships between variables, in order for this to be a 'fair test' all other conditions must be kept the same i.e. controlled. This allows us to establish the cause-effect relationships which underlie the laws of nature.

Answer 173

A feature of the scientific method, one aim of science is to record facts, but an additional aim is to use these facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict the natural world. A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts. Theories should be based on a sound body of valid and reliable scientific studies.

Answer 174

A feature of the scientific method, a good theory must be able to generate testable hypotheses. Popper developed the concept of falsification, the only way to really prove a theory correct is to disprove it, it it can't be disproved it must be correct.

Answer 175

An abstract is as summary of the study covering the aims/hypothesis, method/producers, results and conclusions.

Answer 176

What the researchers intend to investigate. This often includes a review of previous research (theories and studies), explaining why the researchers intend to conduct this particular study. The researchers may state their research predictions and or a hypothesis or hypotheses.

Answer 177

A detailed description of what the researchers did, providing enough information for replication of the study.

Answer 178

Information about the participants (how they were selected, how many were used, and the experimental design) The independent and dependent variables The testing environment Materials used Procedures used to collect data Any instructions given to participants before (the brief) and afterwards (the debrief).

Answer 179

For full marks, the method section should be written clearly, succinctly and in such a way that the study would be replicable. It should be set out in a conventional reporting style, possibly under appropriate headings. The important factor here is whether the study could be replicated.

Answer 180

This section contains statistical data including descriptive statistics (tables, averages and graphs) and inferential statistics.

Answer 181

The use of statistical tests to determine how significant the results are.

Answer 182

Write the results out clearly in words e.g 'the mean number of objects remembered for participants listening to music was seven, but for those not listening to music was nine' Refer to the standard deviation or range and explain what they mean e.g. 'those listening to music had a higher standard deviation then those not listening to music, meaning that their scores varied more around the mean. So there was more individual differences in participants' memories when listentnicng to music Say whether the results were significant and how you know this (refer to OV,CV and levels of significance), and what it means if they were. Discuss issues of validity Discuss issues of reliability.

Answer 183

The researchers offer explanations of the behaviours they observed and might also consider the implications of the results (how it can be applied to the real world) and make suggestions for future work. The researchers must consider their work critically, and evaluate it in terms of validity, reliability, and short-comings or criticisms etc. Discuss how their research relates to the background research discussed in their introduction.

Answer 184

The full details of any journal articles or books that are mentioned in the introduction.

Answer 185

Abstract Introduction/Aim/Hypotheses Method Results Discussion References

Answer 186

£50 million

Answer 187

In diverse fields such as medicine, psychiatry, therapy, social work, childcare, advertising, marketing, business, forensic in crime, the army, education, etc.

Answer 188

Psychology indirectly contributes to the economy, for example, in the UK, 40% of people claiming in capacity benefits are doing so due to anxiety or depression, therefore, psychotherapy may assist the long-term unemployed in returning to work which causes increased tax revenue. Psychology may also assist in finding solutions to wider social problems relating to crime, aggression, child abuse etc. This could contribute to the economy by reducing levels of crime (theft and damage to properties), reducing prison population (paid for by the tax-payer) and increased taxation (people working rather than being in prison).

Answer 189

This refers to the 3 forms of average- mean, median and mode- which tell us about the average within a set of data.

Answer 190

An advantage of the mean is that it is the truest form of average because it uses all scores within a set of data.

Answer 191

a disadvantage is that the mean may be artificially inflated or deflated by extreme scores (outliers) in a set of data (in such a case we can say that the data is skewed).

Answer 192

An advantage of the median is that it is not affected by extreme scores.

Answer 193

It does not take into account the precise value of each observation and hence does not use all information available in the data.

Answer 194

An advantage of the mod is that it is not affected by extreme scores (outliers).

Answer 195

Is that the mode can be altered a lot by small changes in a set of data. Also, set of scores may have no mode value.

Answer 196

These tell us about the spread/dispersion/variability within a set of scores.

Answer 197

The range The standard deviation

Answer 198

ThIs simply tells us about the range of scores in a set of data. The range is calculated by taking the highest score and subtracting the lowest score.

Answer 199

Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion that shows the spread of scores around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the great the spread of scores around the mean.

Answer 200

The SD is a measure of dispersion that is less easily distorted by a single extreme score. The SD takes account of the distance of all scores from the mean. The SD does not just measure the distance between the highest score and the lowest score.

Answer 201

Graphs Histograms Bar charts Scattergrams

Answer 202

Graphs are used to display continuous scores (ordinal data). For example, to record participants scores in a memory (x/20)

Answer 203

They are graphs converted to show interval scores

Answer 204

Height, weight, shoe size.

Answer 205

IQ scores show a 'normal' distribution as most scores cluster around the mean average and as scores decrease or increase in either direction, fewer and fewer people possess these high or low scores. 68% of the population have an IQ between 85 and 115, only 2% of the population have an IQ between 130 and 145.

Answer 206

Distorted in one direction of another.

Answer 207

Yes, positively and negatively skewed.

Answer 208

Salary in the UK, a small percentage of the population earn a very large salary.

Answer 209

The IQs of children with Downs Syndrome would be negatively skewed, as there is lots with a low IQ, few with a high IQ.

Answer 210

Starts of low and then rises and falls So Low

Answer 211

Instantly increases and then gradually falls

Answer 212

If there is a significant difference between how the 2 conditions of the IV affect the DV or If there is a significant correlation between 2 co-variables.

Answer 213

Significant can be thought of as referring to whether there is a real, interesting and importance difference or correlation between variables.

Answer 214

Statistical analysis is a tool to assess whether we have or have no found a significant difference or correlation in a study.

Answer 215

Whether the study is an experiment or a correlation study Whether the study's design is an independent groups design or a repeated measures design Whether data is at the ordinal, nominal or ratio level.

Answer 216

Chi-squared test (X^2)

Answer 217

Mann-Whitney U Test

Answer 218

Unrelated T Test

Answer 219

Wilcoxon test

Answer 220

Related T test

Answer 221

Spearman's rank correlation co-efficient test

Answer 222

Pearsons product moment correlation

Answer 223

Ordinal Data Nominal Data Interval Data

Answer 224

Data which can be ranked from low to high. E.g. scores in an IQ test, memory test or personality questionnaire

Answer 225

Data in the form of categories of information. E.g. number of students studying particular participants in college.

Answer 226

Ordinal data which has either been separated into intervals E.g. 0-5, 6-10, 11-15, 16-20

Answer 227

Data from an experiment or correlation study is processed through a statical/mathematical formulae. This will eventually produce one single number which 'describes' the data as a whole, this is referred to as the observed value. (OV) The OV is then compared to a critical value (CV). This is a number found by cross-referencing certain information on a table of statistical significance.

Answer 228

In some tests if the observed value > critical value then the statistics test shows that we have a significant difference/correlation and can, therefore, accept the experimental hypothesis. If the OV < CV we reject the experimental hypothesis. In other tests the reverse is true e.g. If OV < CV we reject the experimental hypothesis. In the exam you will be told which of the 2 rules above applies to the statistics test concerned.

Answer 229

As there is always a probability that although results seem to indicate particular findings they are incorrect and findings have occurred by chance.

Answer 230

The concept of level of significance is used to indicate to readers to what percentage probability we can say that a particular set of findings are accurate and true, and to what extent results may have simply occurred due to chance.

Answer 231

This indicates a 95% probability that results are accurate and true and a < 5% that results occurred due to chance.

Answer 232

High levels of significance can be set went the accuracy of research findings is more important, for example in trials of a new drug.

Answer 233

This means that researchers are 99% confident results are true and there is only a 1% probability they occurred due to chance.

Answer 234

Lower. E.g. level of statistical significance 0.1 means that probability of results occurred due to chance is 10%. Whereas a level of statistical significance of 0.001 means that the probability that results occurred due to chance is 0.1%.

Answer 235

Type 1 errors Type 2 erros

Answer 236

Calling something true when it's false. When a statistics test indicates that the experimental hypothesis should be accepted, but in fact, the results are due to chance random factors. If the level of significance is set at 5% there will always be a 1/20 chance of a type 1 error. The higher the level of significance the greater the chance that a type 1 error will occur.

Answer 237

Calling something false when it's true. When a statistics test indicates that the experimental hypothesis should be rejected but in fact, the results are significant. The lower the level of significance the greater the chance that a type 2 error will occur.

Answer 238

The sign test

Answer 239

The sign test are used in experiments with a repeated measures design and nominal data.

Answer 240

LOOK UP IMAGE or 802 in research methods.

Answer 241

Subtract the score for the experimental condition from the control condition. If the result is negative add a minus sign, if it's positive add a + sign; if there's no difference add a 0 sign.

Answer 242

Count the number of times the less frequent sign occurs. Call this value S

Answer 243

Count the total number of + and - signs. Call this value N

Answer 244

Decide whether a 1 or 2 tailed hypothesis was used.

Answer 245

Consult the table of statistical significance for the Sign Test fo find the critical value.

Answer 246

Look down the left hand column marked N until you get to the total number of + and - signs.

Answer 247

Cross reference N with he columns for either 1 or 2 tailed test and the level of significance value of 0.05. Call this value the critical value.

Answer 248

If the critical value is greater or equal to S (the least frequent sign) then we have found a significant difference.

Answer 249

The full details of any journal articles or books that are mentioned in the introduction of a psychological report.

Answer 250

Always written in the following format: surname, initials, year, title, where it was published, publisher. For example, a book written by Sandra L Bem in 1993 titled 'The lenses of gender: transforming the debate on sexual equality' published in Newhaven by Yale University Press would be referenced: Bem, S.L. 1993. The Lenses of gender: transforming the debate on sexual equality. New Haven. Yale University Press.

Answer 251

A paradigm refers to the accepted and approved of ways of thinking, understanding, theorising and researching that exist and are shared within any one particular science. For example, biologists all tend to work within a paradigm where they accept basic concepts (evolution and Darwinian theory) as true and agree on how biology should be studied (scientific experimentation).

Answer 252

Psychology is often described as pre-paradigmatic as there is no complete, shared agreement between psychologists about how they should understand and explain human behaviour or what the best methods to study behaviour are. Psychology encompasses a number of conflicting approaches e.g. (behaviourism, biological, cognitive etc) which disagree over what the major influences are on behaviour and what methods should be employed to study behaviour.

Answer 253

A paradigm shift is something that occurs when there is a fundamental change in how scientists in a particular field understand and research subject matter due to evidence proving that the previous paradigm was inadequate/incorrect in some way. For example, in the field of physics, nEWTON'S LAWS WERE THE DOMINANT PARADIGM FROM THE 18TH to the early 20th century before the work of Einstein resulted in a paradigm shift in the way in which physicists understood the physical laws of the natural world.

Answer 254

Thematic analysis involves analysing quantitative research techniques (interviews, opened questions e.g.) in terms of themes which occur in the content of responses given by participants. We can count these themes to produce quantitative data. For example, if we interviewed adults who had experiences maternal deprivation as an infant we could analyse what major themes occurred in interviews (e.g. feelings of loss, desire for love etc.d and count how many times these themes occurred.

Answer 255

We can turn complex qualitative data into quantitative data which can then be statistically analysed.

Answer 256

If a number of researchers are conducting thematic analysis on the same data they may interpret and count themes in different ways to each other which would lead to a lack of reliability. (This could be overcome through testing for inter-rater reliability)