Research & Program Evaluation Flashcards

Question

cross-sectional research

Answer 1

consists of collecting data from different groups at the same time and examining the differences

Answer 2

in 2 ways: 1) within-subjects: examining what changes occur with the members of a group 2) between subjects: examining what changes occur bw >=2 groups

Answer 3

refers to research comparing findings across studies (ie results of many studies examined and one or more questions answered)

Answer 4

the extent to which extraneous values are controlled (ie, the exten that the treatment variable is the only one producing the observed changes)

Answer 5

SIMMESH Selection of subjects (differences in ppl) - differences in the results bw groups due to composition Instrumentation (differences in results due to instruments or recorders became bored and recorded differently) Maturation - results may be due to maturational or other changes rather than the treatment Mortality or attrition Experimenter bias - responses of the subjects may be influenced by the researcher Statistical regression History - may be extraneous incidents (national, local, tragedies, etc...)

Answer 6

experiment is valid to the extent that the results may be generalized to ppl and situations beyond the study.

Answer 7

Selection of subjects - if subjects aren't randomly selected then results can only apply to one group in the study, and generalized only to ppl with similar characteristics Ecological validity - exists if results can be generalized from one setting/circumstance to another (sometimes they're so unique that they can't) Subject reactions (Reactivity) - results may not be generalized if any of these are present: Hawthorne effect, Demand Characteristics, Experimenter Bias, Placebo Novelty and disruption effect - the measured effect of the treatment may be due to its novelty or the disruption it causes. when novelty or disruption wear off, there may be long-term effects of the treatment

Answer 8

refers to the influence in performance when subjects know they're being observed

Answer 9

are all the cues, info, knowledge, rumors the subject has heard about the experiment

Answer 10

aka Rosenthal Effect refers to the changes in the subject's behavior brought on by the researcher's expectations, behaviors, attitudes

Answer 11

He did research on experimenter bias and called it the Pygmalion Effect, which refers to the self-fulfilling expectation of doing well because it is expected

Answer 12

a type of threat to external validity exists if results can be generalized from one setting/circumstance to another (sometimes they're so unique that they can't)

Answer 13

a type of threat to external validity the measured effect of the treatment may be due to its novelty or the disruption it causes. when novelty or disruption wear off, there may be long-term effects of the treatment

Answer 14

a type of threat to external validity results may not be generalized if any of these are present: Hawthorne effect, Demand Characteristics, Experimenter Bias, Placebo

Answer 15

- determines the type of statistic you can use 4 levels (NOIR): Nominal - the #s represent qualities or categogies (ie, male or female) Ordinal - [think ORDER] #s represent differences in some magnitude of the variable; can order the data from high to low, top to bottom (ie, scores arranged on a test from highest to lowest) Interval - the intervals bw #s are the same (ie, distance bw 4 & 5 is same as bw 23 & 24) Ratio - the #s are on a scale which has a true value of zero. #s can also be compared by ratios (ie, smn who weighs 200lbs is twice as much as smn who weighs 100lbs, but in counseling we can't say smn is twice as introverted as smn else)

Answer 16

CROPPS Cluster sampling Random sampling Other samples Proportional sampling Purposeful sampling Stratified sampling

Answer 17

the sampled unit is a group of naturally occurring individuals rather than the individuals themselves ie, classes, city blocks

Answer 18

there's an equal and independent chance of being selected

Answer 19

samples of convenience or volunteer samples

Answer 20

randomly selecting same proportion of individuals as they represent proportionally in the major subgroups in the population (ie, if half the population [in a neighborhood or wherever] is white and other half is hispanic, then set the sample set to half white and half hispanic)

Answer 21

- used when there's zero interest in generalizing the findings, as it's a comprehensive sampling when every case or event is selected

Answer 22

major subgroups in population are sampled

Answer 23

influences statistical hypothesis testing

Answer 24

DIPN descriptive or inferential parametric or nonparametric descriptive: used to describe the data inferential: used to make inferences about the sample to the population; goal is to determine probability of an event parametric: represents normally distributed data; normal curve because 'para'=2 equal sides; used when variance of the sample is homogenous/similar to variance of the population nonparametric: used when you cannot make assumptions about the shape of the curve or variance of population (scores not normally distributed, variances not homogenous). For example, you want to talk about the school's academic performance but you only have data from the gifted classes, so you won't have a normal distribution of scores

Answer 25

the IV is the variable you manipulate/control to see what changes. May be grouped into a category by gender, class, sex etc.. - the IV precedes the DV -sometimes called the stimulus variable, experimental variable, or predictor variable (SEP because it’s separate from the DV being tested) the DV is the variable you are measuring or trying to change (“woe is me, I’m dependent on you! Change me!). The value of the DV depends on the value of the IV you selected. ie, the effect of three different therapeutic techniques (IVs) on anxiety (DV). - sometimes called the response variable, outcome variable, criterion variable

Answer 26

IV - sometimes called the stimulus variable, predictor variable, or experimental variable DV - sometimes called the response variable, outcome variable, criterion variable

Answer 27

Null hypothesis: there is no difference between the variables or groups measured. - Ie, there are no significant differences in GPA between boys and girls finishing 10th grade Directional hypothesis: states that one group score will be significantly different from others’ Ie., the GPA of girls will be higher than the GPA of boys finishing 10th grade Non-directional hypothesis: there will be differences between groups, but what the difference is is not indicated Ie., the GPA of girls and boys finishing 10th grade will be different

Answer 28

Refers to the likelihood of making the mistake of either rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis when you shouldn’t. Common significance levels are .05, .01, and .001. - For example, at .05 you were willing to accept the possibility of rejecting the null hypothesis in error five times out of 100 (if you perform the experiment 100 times)

Answer 29

Type I error is rejecting the null hypothesis when you shouldn’t Ie., a type one error would mean you say there is a significant difference in XYZ when in fact, the difference is not significant. Type II error is retaining the hypothesis when you shouldn’t should Ie., a type two error would mean that you would say there is not a significant difference in XYZ when in fact there is. As the significance level goes down (ie .05 to .01), type I error decreases, but type II error increases. As one type of error goes up, the other goes down and vice versa.

Answer 30

Used to determine whether the main scores of two groups are significantly different from each other. Can only be used when there are 2 groups (2 mean scores)

Answer 31

One-way Factorial Multivariate

Answer 32

When you have only one variable at 3 or more levels p259-260

Answer 33

factorial analysis of variance Used to simultaneously determine whether mean scores on 2 or more variables (factors) differ. Ie, the effects of two or more factors (independent variables) are being measured

Answer 34

Multivariate analysis of variance Used when the analysis involves more than one DEPENDENT variable

Answer 35

Analysis of covariance Used similarly to analysis of variance except that the influence of one or more IVs on the DV is controlled. - analyzes the differences between three or more group means while controlling for the effects of at least one continuous covariate

Answer 36

Use post hoc (after the fact) to determine whether different group means or combinations thereof are significantly different. Examples: Scheffe’s Tukey’s Honestly significant difference Newman-Keuls Duncan’s new multiple range test

Answer 37

When the variance of your sample is similar to the variance of the population

Answer 38

When you cannot assume that your distribution of scores is normally distributed, or there is a lack of homogeneity (when the variance of your sample is similar to the variance of the population) Examples: Mann-Whitney U Test: - When you collect data from two samples that are independent from each other, and the scores are not normally distributed Wilcoxen Signed-rank test: - when you have scores for two samples, and these scores are correlated, but they do not approximate a normal distribution Kruskal- Wallis test: - when you have more than two mean scores on a single variable. This is a non-parametric one way analysis of variance. Chi-square: - used when you have nominal data such as groups or categories. Used to determine whether two distributions differ significantly compared to expectations

Answer 39

Examines the effect of any pretest used on the experimental treatment. Ie, maybe a pretest sensitized subjects to the “need” for the treatment being tested

Answer 40

Uses the correlation coefficient to determine the strength of the relationship of predictor (independent) variables on a criterion (dependent) variable. Multiple regression ads together with the predictive power of several independent variables (predictors) Ex: predict your variables, like high school GPA, class rank, and ACT scores may be used to predict the criterion (outcome) variable, such as end of freshman year GPA

Answer 41

Non parametric test used when you have nominal data such as groups or categories. Used to determine whether two distributions differ significantly compared to expectations It's also known as a "goodness of fit" statistic because it measures how well observed data aligns with expected distributions. The test's primary purpose is to determine if two variables are independent, meaning they are unrelated.

Answer 42

Graphic representation of the relationship between two variables for a group of individuals

Answer 43

A statistical method using the correlation coefficient to determine whether a set of variables can be reduced to a small smaller number of factors. For example, a factor analysis of 15 items on an inventory may uncover that only four of them are independent of each other. Thus many of the constructs of the 15 items overlap.

Answer 44

A correlation coefficient to use when one variable yields continuous data and the other yields data that is dichotomous

Answer 45

Refers to the number of observations that are free to vary

Answer 46

Occurs when neither the researcher nor the subject knows who is getting the active substance or placebo

Answer 47

The tendency for the observer to form an early impression of the person being observed, and then letting this impression in influence observations for ratings of that individual “They seem nice so they must have good intent”

Answer 48

When one end of a distribution of scores has more variability than the other end, resulting in a fan like appearance

Answer 49

When there’s an equal distribution of scores throughout the range of scores, i.e. around a line of best fit (scores are more clumped)

Answer 50

In qualitative research, the reliability calculated by correlating the responses of several raters

Answer 51

Control treatment

Answer 52

Used when the values of the variables are reported in rank form rather than continuous

Answer 53

It refers to the Tendency to be miserly and not overspend Occam’s Razor

Answer 54

When an undesirable variable which is not controlled by the researcher is introduced in the experiment

Answer 55

The law enforcement aptitude battery assessment (LEAB)

Answer 56

“There’s a sucker born every minute” Aka The Forer Effect A cognitive bias that causes people to believe that general descriptions applies to them specifically (psychic readings) A set personality trait or characteristics that’s so vague can be used for anyone

Answer 57

Both The Rosenthal effect suggests that an experimenter's beliefs about an individual can cause the person observed to behave in a certain way and therefore skew experimental data. It applies to both informal and formal ways of observation.

Answer 58

The Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF), a number from 1 to 100 that roughly assessed a client's overall level of functioning, is no longer used as part of a formal diagnosis. Some counselors may still find it useful. Higher =better Lower= impairment

Answer 59

Yes, in some circumstances In some cases, training can raise an IQ score; keep in mind that the assertion is that the person can learn skills which can raise their score, not that their brain has changed per se.

Answer 60

We tend to choose partners who match our level of attractiveness The matching hypothesis asserts that when choosing long-term mates, we tend to choose partners who match our overall level of attractiveness. The matching hypothesis does not assert that attitude, personality type, or mental illness is a factor in matching.

Answer 61

Under no circumstances Counselors providing supervision to supervisees should not provide actual counseling services under any circumstances.

Answer 62

The loss of intelligence in the last five years of life; aka "terminal decline" Terminal drop refers to a theory about intelligence in older people that states there is a marked decline in intellectual functioning in the last five years of life. The term does not refer to general physical decline or breathing.

Answer 63

According to research, binge eating disorder (in which a person engages in a period of concentrated overeating) is the most common eating disorder.

Answer 64

Psychotherapy notes form a special class of clinical documentation. They are to be kept separate from the rest of the clinical record, and contain items such as (a CAT in the notes): - clinical impressions - analysis - therapeutic conversations

Answer 65

It treats symptoms but not causes Behavior therapy, in its many forms as descended from the work of B. F. Skinner, does seem to have a good track record of proven results in treating various issues. However, in directly addressing specific behaviors and treating them, it tends to ignore the inner life of the person and therefore can be said to treat symptoms of problems rather than causes of those problems (as in more insight-oriented psychotherapy).

Answer 66

To help clients make decisions with the best information possible Clients should be in a position to make the best decisions possible with the best information possible, whether in counseling or as participants in research. This process is referred to as informed consent.

Answer 67

Spirituality offers benefits but can create strain There is a paradox involved in clients embracing religion or spirituality, or in therapists relying on religious or spiritual content. Though spirituality and religion can offer a number of benefits, the same content can create issues. For example, religion is capable of increasing a client's well being through mood, identification with an other, and marital satisfaction; however, religion can also create anxiety and depression.

Answer 68

Using strategies from various schools of counseling There are many schools of counseling, each of which has unique strengths and potential liabilities. Psychotherapy integration refers to using strategies from various schools of counseling.

Answer 69

3 The phenomenon of conformity in groups has been studied to indicate exactly when a process of groupthink begins to take hold. The available research seems to suggest that it takes as little as three persons in a group to begin producing conformity.

Answer 70

None Despite the fact that such items as flexibility, enthusiasm, and common sense are considered helpful to some degree, research has yet to reliably identify any single trait as more valuable than the rest in group leaders.

Answer 71

Chemical dependency (CD) The chemical dependency, or CD, model of substance use treatment, is notable due to its use of a recovering addict to help a practicing addict. It is believed, according to this model, that the experience of being an addict is so unique and unknown to those who have not experienced it that a recovering addict is much more helpful in substance use treatment of addicted persons.

Answer 72

at the time of the wedding Research indicates that marital satisfaction tends to be highest at the time of the wedding, though there is idiosyncratic ebb and flow in most marriages.

Answer 73

No, eye movement is not required Suprisingly, it has been found that, in treating some kinds of conditions caused by trauma, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (EMDR), does not always need the eye movement component to be effective.

Answer 74

The need to affiliate, or to have associational bonds with others, appears to decrease with birth order, according to research. Thus, a third child would have the least need for affiliation according to this research.

Answer 75

Protection against anxiety The defense mechanisms, such as denial, rationalization, projection, and so on, were, according to Sigmund Freud, protection against the anxiety produced by one's life. Thus, if one practices denial, one does not have to face whatever is being denied. Freud did not suggest that defense mechanisms were protection against depression, psychosis, or violence.

Answer 76

Bias oriented toward men "Androcentric bias" is a term that emerged from feminist therapy, which suggests that most therapeutic interventions and theories have at their heart a bias oriented toward men in general.

Answer 77

A three-step process to reducing stress Stress inoculation refers to the three-step process innovated by Donald Meichenbaum which seeks to deal with stress. 1) educational stage where the client monitors themselves 2) rehearsal stage in which the learning is applied to practice 3) application stage where the learning is put to use in the real world situation causing stress.

Answer 78

communicative role Virginia Satir, as a part of experimental conjoint family therapy, offered terminology for various roles that do not serve the purpose of addressing family issues when they are present. One of these is the "irrelevant distractor," who, when the family system is under stress, will resort to the strategy of using irrelevant information to block progress. The term applies to the person and not the material of their distracting behavior.

Answer 79

The phenomenon of being addicted to an addicted person Though the term can refer to various aspects of relational dynamics in substance abuse, the concept of codependency essentially refers to one person being "addicted" to caregiving, supporting, or otherwise engaging in an unhealthy relationship of support for a person who is experiencing substance use issues. The term does not refer to two people being addicted to the same substance, though this does sometimes occur in codependent scenarios.

Answer 80

the moment when a client lets down their guard with someone from a different culture In multicultural counseling, therapeutic surrender refers to the moment when a client from one culture lets down their guard with someone from a different culture. This moment is key to the establishment of trust and productive therapeutic rapport.

Answer 81

Managing a client's whole physical and social environment Milieu therapy seeks to help clients with their issues by managing the whole social and physical environment in which therapy is taking place; in effect, the management of the milieu amounts to a kind of therapy in its own right.

Answer 82

Resorting to psychosis to escape current reality In providing empathic clinical counseling, it is important to remember that psychosis is sometimes part of a mind's inability to deal with current difficulties or other issues. This is known as "flight from reality."

Answer 83

To give the client greater control in response Open-ended questions, those in which there is not a concrete, specific response anticipated by the counselor, are of use in treatment chiefly because they give greater control to the client in terms of how they would like to respond to a given query. The point of open-ended questions is not to make the client speak more often, encourage honesty, or to activate key insights.

Answer 84

Social comparison theory suggests that we compare ourselves with others to evaluate ourselves and orient our aspirations and current status to an overall social standard. Social comparison theory does not suggest that the objective of such comparison is feeling better or dismissing others.

Answer 85

one the research cannot control yet exists, such as height, weight, or gender

Answer 86

raising the sample size helps lower the chance of risk of chance/error factors. Basically, differences revealed in large sample sizes are likely more genuine than differences revealed in a smaller sample

Answer 87

a two-way ANOVA. 3 IVs would be a three-way ANOVA, etc...

Answer 88

The Hawthorne effect and the placebo effect are both psychological phenomena that can affect experimental results. The Hawthorne effect is when participants change their behavior because they are being observed, while the placebo effect is when participants change their behavior because they believe in a treatment

Answer 89

the tail would be toward the right hint: the direction of the tail indicates whether the distribution is positively or negatively skewed

Answer 90

Levels of measurement describe the type of data collected during a study or experiment. Nominal - describes variables that are categories (ie gender, dominant hand, height) Ordinal - describes variables that can be ranked (ie likert scales) Interval - describes variables that use equally space intervals (#of minutes, temperature) Ratio - describes anything that has a true zero point available (angles, dollars, cents)

Answer 91

ANOVA Used to find whether significant difference bw two variables exist. Used to simultaneously determine whether mean scores on 2 or more variables (factors) differ. Ie, the effects of two or more factors (independent variables) are being measured

Answer 92

Factorial ANOVA is used to find whether significant differences between two variables exist. One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) can be used to determine differences between three different forms of one variable, such as levels of income. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is the statistic used when there is more than one dependent variable involved in the analysis. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) is used to determine covariance when an independent variable and its impact on dependent variables is controlled.

Answer 93

Evaluation

Answer 94

Objective. NOT a personality test

Answer 95

Inductive reasoning makes specific observations and then draws a conclusion Deductive reasoning is when a specific conclusion follows a general theory

Answer 96

Minor premise

Answer 97

Independent variable

Answer 98

The Hawthorne effect - refers to the change in behavior that occurs when people know they are being observed, often leading them to act differently than they normally would. Rosenthal effect - describes how a person's performance or behavior is influenced by the expectations of an authority figure, leading to self-fulfilling prophecies