Slide Set 1 Flashcards
1
Q
__ & __ are best learned together as function of a cell tissue or organ
A
Anatomy & physiology
2
Q
What are the smallest parts of the body?
A
Atoms
3
Q
__ organise and differentiate together to form a tissue
A
cells
4
Q
groups of organs work together to form a __
A
system
5
Q
When you use only the naked eye to study the body and its parts
A
Gross anatomy
6
Q
Which systems work together to maintain homeostasis?
A
Endocrine & nervous
7
Q
What are the 11 organ systems?
A
- skeletal
- muscular
- cardiovascular/circulatory
- integumentary
- digestive
- respiratory
- nervous
- endocrine
- urinary
- reproductive
- lymphatic
8
Q
Smallest unit of structure capable of carrying out all life processes :
A
Cells
= smallest and most numerous units that make up tissues
9
Q
What do mammalian cells have ? (3)
A
nucleus
cytoplasm
membrane
10
Q
Particularity of cells?
A
- Differentiate to perform unique functions
- All cells have the same DNA
11
Q
What are factors essential for cell differentiation?
A
- cell-cell communication
- growth factors
- ECM composition
- cell location in differentiating embryo
12
Q
What forms the 3 primary germ layers?
A
Gastrulation
13
Q
What are the primary germ layers?
A
- endoderm (lung, pancreas, liver, GI tract, UG tract)
- mesoderm (bone, kidney, heart)
- ectoderm (eye, nervous system, skin)
14
Q
Endoderm
A
Lines digestive and respiratory tracts, parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid, bladder
15
Q
Ectoderm
A
Integument (skin), lens of the eye and nervous system
16
Q
Mesoderm
A
Circulatory system, excretory system, muscles, connective tissue, organ
17
Q
What are the 4 major tissue types?
A
- epithelial
- connective tissue
- muscle
- nervous
18
Q
The EPITHELIAL tissue
- characteristics :
- functions :
- where
A
- characteristics = 1 or more layers of densely arranged cells with very little ECM
- functions = covers and protect the body surfaces, lines body cavities, movement of substances (secretory)
- found = skin, lining of respiratory tract, digestive tract, urinary, glands of the body
19
Q
The CONNECTIVE tissue
- characteristics :
- functions :
- where
A
- characteristics = few cells, lots of ECM
- functions = connect anchors and supports body structures, transport. provides structural and metabolic support
- where = bone, tendons, blood, fat
20
Q
What is the ECM made up of?
A
- fibers in a protein
- polysaccharide matrix
- cells (fibroblasts)
21
Q
What determines the properties of the connective tissue?
A
The composition of the ECM
ex: if calcified, forms bone or teeth
ex2: specialized forms comprise tendons, cartilage
22
Q
What is the matrix of connective tissue composed of?
A
- glycoproteins
- fibrous proteins
- glycosoaminoglycans
- collagen (just blood cells)
23
Q
The MUSCLE tissue
- characteristics :
- functions :
- where
A
- characteristics = long fiberlike cells
- functions = contracts and generates force
- where = heart, skeletal muscle, surrounding hollow organ (bladder, uterus)
24
Q
The NERVOUS tissue
- characteristics :
- functions :
- where
A
- characteristics = cells specialized for conducting nerve impulses
- functions = initiate and transmit electrical impulses
- where = brain, spinal cord, nerves
25
Different tissues work together for an organ to function, what is an example?
The stomach, composed of smooth muscle, nervous tissue, loose connective tissue, epithelium, connective tissue
26
What is homeostasis?
The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment. The body adjusts variables to maintain a "set point" in an acceptable or normal range
27
What are the variables regulated in homeostasis?
```
Temperature
pH
ion concentrations
oxygen
CO2
water
blood glucose
```
28
What is the chosen source used by our cells?
Glucose
29
What are the components of homeostatic mechanism?
- sensor : detects and reacts to changes
- integrating/ control center : analyzes info
= hypothalamus
- effector mechanism : brings about the change to return to set point
- feedback : process of info about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator
30
Negative feedback
Response opposes or removes the original stimulus, which in turn stops the response loop
31
Positive feedback
Response reinforces the stimulus rather than decreasing or removing it. Destabilises the system until some intervention or event outside the loop stops the response.
32
Which feedback is most common?
negative
33
Which feedback is stimulatory, disrupts homeostasis, reinforces the change?
positive
34
Which feedback is inhibitory, resets physiological variables, maintains homeostasis?
negative
35
Example of positive feedback
Cervical stretch stimulates oxytocin release which causes uterine contraction and pushes baby against cervix
36
What are the 3 levels of homeostatic control?
- intracellular
- intrinsic
- extrinsic
37
Intracellular control :
-
-
- operates within cells
| - genes or enzymes often regulate cell processes
38
Intrinsic control :
-
-
intrinsic=autoregulation
- regulation within tissues or organs
- may involve chemical signals
39
Extrinsic control :
-
-
- regulation from organ to organ
- may involve nerve signals
- may involve endocrine signals (hormones)
40
Examples of intrinsic, extrinsic, intracellular regulation
extrinsic: nervous system, endocrine system
intracellular: pancreas produces lipase
intrinsic : kidney regulates blood flow
41
The cells in loose connective tissue are
- mast cells
- macrophages
- fibroblasts (secrete matrix proteins)
= main cell type
42
The fibres in the loose connective tissue are
- elastic
| - collagen
43
What is ground substance?
Is the matrix of loose connective tissue
44
What are the 3 types of connective tissue?
- connective tissue proper (dense and loose)
- fluid (blood and lymph)
- supporting (bone and cartilage)
45
The dense connective tissue proper can be :
Irregular or regular
46
The loose connective tissue proper can be :
- areolar
- reticular
- adipose
47
What do dense connective tissues provide?
| What is the dominent fibre?
Strength and flexibility
ex: tendons, ligaments
Dominant fiber = collagen
48
__ attach skeletal muscle to bones
Tendons
49
__ connect one bone to another
Ligaments
50
What are the most abundant of the tissue types?
Connective tissues
51
Loose connective tissues are __
elastic tissues that underlie skin and provide support for small glands
52
Tendons and ligaments are
dense connective tissues ,
| have density packed collagen fibres
53
Adipose connective tissue is composed of __ & __ fat
White
| Brown
54
What is the difference between white and brown fat?
White fat = single lipid droplet
| Brown fat = multiple lipid droplets
55
The blood is also a connective tissue what is it made up of?
- plasma matrix
| - free blood cells (red & white & platelets)
56
Adipocyte =
Fat cell
57
What are the 2 supporting tissues?
- cartilage
| - bone
58
Cartilage
- light, solid and flexible
- trachea and ears
- lack of blood supply
- can't be generated quickly when damaged
59
Bone
- Calcified ECM (calcium salts)
- Rigid, strong
- can heal as opposed to cartilage
60
What are the 3 types of muscle tissues?
- cardiac (in heart)
- smooth (internal organs)
- skeletal (attach to bones)
61
Characteristic of muscle tissue
- contractile
- signal conduction
- produces force and movement
62
Characteristics of skeletal muscle
- multiple nucleated cells
- long, linear fibers
- striations
63
Characteristics of cardiac muscle
- striated
- branched fibres
- smaller fibres
- unicleated
- intercalated disks (junction between cells)
64
Characteristics of smooth muscle
- no striations
- spindle shapes
- small fibres
65
_ types of cells in nervous tissues :
2
- Glial
- Neurons
66
Neurons or nerve cells
- carry information in the form of chemical and electrical signals from one part of the body to another
- are excitable
- in brain, spinal cord
67
Glial cells or neuroglia
- are the support cells for neurons
68
Out of the 4 tissue types, which one has an extensive matrix?
CONNECTIVE
69
Unique feature of epithelial tissue
No direct blood supply
70
Unique feature of connective tissue
Cartilage has no blood supply
71
Unique feature of muscle tissue
Able to generate electrical signals, force, movement
72
Unique feature of nerve tissue
Able to generate electrical signals
73
How do cells gain functional anatomy ?
Differentiation
| Occurs thanks to growth factors or other chemical signals
74
The very earliest cells in the life of a human being are said to be __. In the embryo cells aren't differentiated yet.
TOTIPOTENT
75
Totipotent cells can differentiate into
any and all types of specialized cells
76
Totipotent cells begin to specialise at day 4 into __ cells
PLURIPOTENT
| - can develop into many cell types but not all
77
Stages of maturation
Totipotent
Pluripotent
Stem cells
Multipotent
78
stem cells =
- cells that are able to reproduce themselves and differentiate into specialized cells
- they are undifferentiated cells
- are highly proliferative
- can replace totipotent and pluripotent cells
79
Where are most stem cells plentiful in?
Embryos
80
Are stem cells found in adults?
Yes in bone marrow, liver, skin, hair
81
___ therapy is being developed to treat diseases and injuries such as spinal coord injury, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's
Stem cell
82
What is the danger of therapeutic cloning?
Once these cells are stimulated, they can lead to cancer
83
What is therapeutic cloning?
- harvest somatic cell
- place in nucleus of the somatic cell in enucleated oocyte
- mature to blastocysts
- get cells to differentiate
- transplant back to patient
84
Where to obtain stem cells for research & treatments?
- adult bone marrow
- testis
- induced pluripotent cells
85
Eukaryotic cells 4 major structure
- plasma membrane
- cytoplasm
- nucleus
- organelles (mitochondria, Golgi, ER)
86
Cells contain 2 membranes
- plasma membranes - encloses the cell
| - organelle membrane - sacs and canals made of the same material as the plasma membrane that enclose organelles
87
Function of membranes
- controls transport in and out
- structural support
- regulates exchange and communication
(transmembrane receptors)
- site for binding of enzymes
- anchor for ECM or cytoskeleton
88
Which markers does a cell have? (are glycoproteins)
- self markers (MHC) = unique to an individual
| - non-self markers = molecules on surface of foreign cells
89
Our immune system can attack abnormal or foreign cells but spare our own normal cells. This is called :
self-tolerance
90
What are the 2 types of self-markers?
MHC1 : on all cells
| MHC2: on antigen presenting cells
91
What is the function of proteins in the cell membrane ?
- function as protein channels
- control transport of water soluble molecules
(potassium, sodium)
92
The initial response to cellular dehydration is the release of :
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
93
What does ADH act on?
the distal tubule of the kidney
94
What does ADH signal?
To increase water permeability
95
What is ADH or vasopressin?
A posterior pituitary hormone that regulates water reabsorption in the kidney
96
Function of membrane receptors
- trigger an intracellular singling casket when bound by a ligand, this alters intracellular activities
97
What activates a G protein, thus shuttling the alpha subunit to adenylyl cyclase?
An extracellular messenger
98
What is the function of proteins in the cell membranes?
binds other integral membrane proteins to from cell-cell connections or binds ECM to give structure to tissus
99
What are integral proteins ?
| an example is
= proteins tightly bound to the membrane, can be removed by disrupting its membrane structure with detergents or harsh methods
integrin is an example
100
Transmembrane proteins are __ tightly bound to the phospholipid bilayer
integral proteins
101
what are integrins?
- membrane - spanning proteins that link the cytoskeleton to ecm proteins.
- heterodimer made of an alpha and beta subunit
102
Function of integrins
- cell adhesion
| - join cell-cell or cell-ECM
103
What is the watery intracellular fluid in cytoplasm called?
Cytosol
104
2 major groups of organelles
- membranous
| - non membranous
105
Membranous organelles
have sacs or canals made of cell membranes
| golgi, er, plasma membrane, lysosome, proteosome
106
Non membranous organelles
made of microscopic filaments, non membranous materials
| cytoskeleton, ribosomes, cilia, flagella, nucleolus
107
Function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
| What moves through its canals?
- circulates through the cell for protein transport to get from nucleus to cytoplasm to the cell surface for release
- proteins
108
What is the ER made of?
canals with membranous walls
| It extends from nucleus to the plasma membrane
109
What are the 2 types of ER?
- rough ER
| - smooth ER
110
What is the difference between rough & smooth ER?
rough : ribosomes (they synthesize proteins), it functions in protein synthesis and intracellular transportation , transports protein to golgi
smooth : NO ribosomes, synthesises certain lipids and carbs, removes and stores calcium
111
Which ER is important for muscle contraction and hormone production?
Smooth ER, because removes and stores calcium
112
Ribosomes
- non membranous
- made of 2 subunits : large and small
- subunits are composed of ribosomal RNA
113
What are the free ribosomes?
- make proteins for cell's domestic use
114
What are the bound ribosomes?
Those attached to RER, make protein for export
115
What are polyribosomes?
Groups of working ribosomes
116
Which ER synthesises certain lipids and carbohydrates?
smooth
117
Do ribosomes have membranes?
NO
118
Does the Golgi have a membrane?
YES - it is a membranous organelle, consists of cistern stacked on one another, located near the nucleus
119
Function of the golgi?
- processes & packages protein molecules from ER
| - enzymes are present in the golgi
120
What is the route of protein transportation?
- made on ribosomes on ER
- travel through ER
- leave ER in vesicle fuse with golgi
- vesicle fuses with plasma membrane for release outside the cell
121
What are lysosomes made of?
microscopic membranous sacs
122
Function of lysosomes
cell digestive / recycling system performed by enzymes
| they break down proteins, food molecules, food particles, old organelles
123
Disease caused by failure to produce enzyme needed to break down lipids-gangliosides?
Tay-Sachs
124
Proteasome
protein complexes which degrade damaged proteins by proteolysis
125
How are proteins broken down?
- chain of UBIQUITIN molecules
- unfold it as it enters the proteasome
- break apart peptide bonds
- short peptide chains exit the other end of proteasome
126
In __ disease, proteasome system fails.
PARKINSON
| - improperly folded proteins => kill nerve cells in the brain that regulate muscle tension
127
What are mitochondria composed of
- inner and outer membrane
- fluid separates membranes
- enzymes attached to membranes
- single circular DNA
128
Function of mitochondria
- "power plants" of cells,
- mitochondrial enzymes catalyse oxidation reactions that provide 95% of cell's energy supply
(5% from glycolysis)
129
The DNA of the mitochondria is inherited from
the mother
| involved in parkinson, alzheimer, diabetes inheritance
130
Nucleus
- nuclear envelope with nuclear pores that allow proteins (like TF in and out)
- nucleoplasm
131
Multinucleated cells
usually associate with cancerous cells (failure of cytokinesis)
or skeletal
132
How is the DNA of the nucleus?
- heterochromatin : silent genes, tightly compacted
| - euchromatin : active sites of gene expression/transcription, open
133
What determines phenotype
gene transcription
134
What do all of our cells have in common?
DNA! but expression of those genes gives our phenotype
135
DNA wraps around __, forms __
histone proteins ; nucleosomes
136
What provides support, allows movement of cells, proteins and organelles, and serves a critical function in chromatin movement and mechanisms?
CYTOSKLETON
137
microfilaments
smallest cell fibres
| they can slide past each other (causes shortening of the cell-muscle contraction)
138
Sliding filament model
- myosin head bends and binds actin filaments
| - myosin head pulls and slides actin
139
Intermediate filaments
twisted protein strands
THICKER than microfilaments
from SUPPORTING framework
140
Microtubules
```
tiny
HOLLOW tubes
thickest of the cell fibres
made of protein subunits arranged in spiral
MOVE things arrant the cell
```
141
Centrosome
- area of cytoplasm
- near nucleus
- coordinates BUILDING & BREAKING of microtubules in the cell
- role in cell division
142
Examples of cytoskeleton-cell extensions
- microvilli (from microfilaments)
| - cilia & flagella (from microtubules)
143
microvilli
- in epithelial cells that line intestines (there absorption is important)
- increase the surface area
144
cilia & flagella
- have cylinders made of microtubules at their core
145
Difference btwn cilia and flagella
- cilia : shorter and more numerous than flagella
| - flagella found only on human sperm cells
146
What holds cells together?
- fibrous nets
or
- direct connections
147
3 types of direct cell connections
- gap-junctions
- tight-junctions
- anchoring junctions
148
GAP junctions
- direct cytoplasmic connection
- create communication bridges (connexins)
- low electrical resistance, allow electrical impulses to spread from one cardiac cell to the next
149
TIGHT junctions
- prevent movement of material between cells
- cells partly fuse
ex: intestinal tract, cells regulate when enters and leaves
150
ANCHORING junctions
- cells attach to each other, or to ecm
- physical barrier
ex: belt desmosome, spot desmosome
151
Desmosomes
= physical connection thanks to velcro fibres connects cells
- belt : encircle entire cell like a collar
- spot : connects adjacent membranes, "spot welds" at various points
152
Desmosome are present in
skin cells
153
Which organ uses gap junctions?
heart : nerve impulse can travel to and stimulate heart to contract all at once
Within intercalated discs : desmosomes and gap junctions
154
difference between desmosome and gap junction
desmosome: physically hold together
| gap junction : functionally hold together
