Sociocultural Paper 1 Studies

Question 1

Aim of Tajfel 1970 (Klee vs Kandinsky)

Answer 1

To investigate the minimal conditions under which discrimination between social groups could be brought about.

Question 2

Participants and Procedure of Tajfel 1970 (Klee vs Kandinsky)

Answer 2

• 48 schoolboys 14 -15 years old
• randomly allocated to either a ‘Klee group’ or to a ‘Kandinsky group’
• This took place after they had been involved in an exercise where they were successively shown a series of slides of six pairs of unlabeled and unsigned abstract paintings.
• They were told they were by the artists Klee and Kandinsky and were asked to express their preferences for one or the other as the slides were displayed.
  -After they had said which paintings they preferred, the boys were told, (on a purely random basis), that they were in the ‘Klee’ group or the ‘Kandinsky’ group.
• the boys were then asked to allocate points
• (worth 1/10 of a penny each).
• Such allocation was anonymous, and the boys were asked to work separately on this in individual cubicles.
• A matrix was used that allowed them to vary how the points were allocated.

Question 3

Results of Tajfel 1970 (Klee vs Kandinsky)

Answer 3

• When the boys had the choice between maximizing the profit for all and maximizing the profit for their own group, they chose the latter.
• They were found to be more concerned with creating as large a difference as possible between the amounts allocated to each group (in favor of their own group), than in gaining a greater amount for everybody, across the two groups.

Question 4

Conclusion of Tajfel 1970 (Klee vs Kandinsky)

Answer 4

• This is evidence of blatant discrimination associated with the categorisation of the boys into apparently meaningless social groups.
  -It forms the basis of Tajfel’s minimal group paradigm - the concept of what is the minimum requirements for categorization to occur

Question 5

Evaluation of Tajfel 1970 (Klee vs Kandinsky)

Answer 5

• The study effectively established the bare minimum for group membership.
• Clearly illustrated in group bias in the context of resource competition.
• Controlled Environment
• The study was conducted in a lab, therefore it had high levels of control over variables.
• lacked both ecological validity and mundane realism.
• The study was conducted on 14 -15 year old boys results cannot be extrapolated or generalized to a broader population.
• The research was conducted on participants under the age of 18 and therefore their parents would have had to give their consent for their children’s participation.
• Deception was used to hide the true aim from participants.

Question 6

Aim of Schaller 1991 (Ingroup vs Outgroup Stereotypes)

Answer 6

Carried out an experiment to see how group membership may lead to stereotyping

Question 7

Participants and Procedure of Schaller 1991 (Ingroup vs Outgroup Stereotypes)

Answer 7

• Participants were randomly assigned to be members of a group
• Presented with a series of statements that described members of their ingroup(the group they had been assigned to) and their outgroup
• The statements described both desirable and undesirable behaviors

Question 8

Results of Schaller 1991 (Ingroup vs Outgroup Stereotypes)

Answer 8

• When participants were asked about their own group, they recalled stereotyping statements that favored their own group - in group bias
• Showed negative stereotyping of their out group

Question 9

Conclusion/Evaluation of Schaller 1991 (Ingroup vs Outgroup Stereotypes)

Answer 9

• Superficial approach to identity
• Very controlled conditions lessen ecological validity
• Origins of stereotyping
• Social identity theory

Question 10

Aim of Bandura 1963 (Bobo doll)

Answer 10

To see if observing aggression in films (human and cartoon characters) would result in different levels of imitative aggression than observing aggression of live models (used in 1961 study).

Question 11

Participants and Procedure of Bandura 1963 (Bobo doll)

Answer 11

real-life human aggression: same procedure as the 1961 study

filmed human aggression: film was projected on to a wall while the child played in a darkened room of a model behaving aggressively

Cartoon character aggression: cartoon playing in the room of a female model dressed as a cat behaved aggressively

control group: same procedure as the 1961 study

Question 12

Results of Bandura 1963 (Bobo doll)

Answer 12

All 3 conditions displayed higher aggression than the control (Mean = real: 83, Human: 92, Cartoon: 99, Control: 54). Aggression levels were not significantly different for the cartoon compared to the real model. There was no significant gender difference in aggression levels but those who watch the male role model displayed more gun play than those who saw the female role model

Question 13

Conclusion/Evaluation of Bandura 1963 (Bobo doll)

Answer 13

Children learn aggression via observation and imitation, whether the model is real or cartoon

Standardised so consistent - can share/compare results
Boys and girls samples used

Difficult to generalise - all from Stanford uni nursery, doesn’t represent whole population
Lacks ecological - not everyday surrounding, not represent real life
Lacks validity - not really measuring aggression (pushing Bobo doll - is it’s nature)
Caused distress, may have had long term effects

Question 14

Aim of Odden and Rochet 2004 (Samoan fishing)

Answer 14

To study the role of observational learning (based on social cognitive theory) in enculturation in Samoa

Question 15

Participants and Procedure of Odden and Rochet 2004 (Samoan fishing)

Answer 15

This study was an observational, longitudinal study (lasting 25 months) of 28 children in one Samoan village
​In Samoan culture, adults have a non-interventionist approach to their children. Parents do not spend much time with their children, believing that children can learn important skills and values on their own. Thus, this culture provided a unique opportunity to assess the role of observational learning
​Observations were made of the children’s behavior over 25 months, and at the end of the study, children completed a multiple choice test that tested their knowledge of the values of Samoan society, including the Chief system

Question 16

Results of Odden and Rochet 2004 (Samoan fishing)

Answer 16

Children were not taught how to fish, as the supply of fishing equipment was limited. However, children spent a great deal of time observing how adults fished. By the time the children were 10, they began borrowing fishing equipment (without any adult supervision), and by 12 most were capable fishermen (despite never being taught how to fish)

Question 17

Conclusion of Odden and Rochet 2004 (Samoan fishing)

Answer 17

Observational learning plays a significant role in enculturation. It is possible for children to learn the values, norms and behaviors of their culture simply by observation and imitation

Question 18

Evaluation of Odden and Rochet 2004 (Samoan fishing)

Answer 18

A strength of this study is its longitudinal design - by collecting observations over a period of 25 months, researchers were able to observe children acquire new skills (such as fishing) over the course of the study

On the other hand, this study only involved participants from one Samoan village, so it is not certain that observational learning plays such a significant role in other cultures
T​​his was an observational study, without a standardized method for data collection. Therefore, there is always the risk of researcher bias - researchers might have given more weight to observations that confirmed their hypothesis, and less weight to observations that challenged it

Question 19

Aim of Corell (Shooter Bias Stereotype)

Answer 19

Does race of a person change the likelihood of shooting that person

Question 20

Participants and Procedure of Corell (Shooter Bias Stereotype)

Answer 20

Participants played a game in which the goal was to shoot armed targets and not shoot unarmed targets

target race: black or white

object target was holding: weapon or non-weapon

Noted the numbers of errors made (shoot unarmed person)

With two error types: shoot an unarmed target and fail to shoot an armed target

Question 21

Results of Corell (Shooter Bias Stereotype)

Answer 21

participants more likely to shoot unarmed black targets and fail to shoot armed white targets

Question 22

Conclusion/Evaluation of Corell (Shooter Bias Stereotype)

Answer 22

Fatigue may increase shooter bias. the fact that you would have much more adrenaline when you are in a life or death situation have effect it. How would things change in considering the group effect? cops make less aggressive decisions when they are alone.

Question 23

Aim of Kulkofsky 2011 (Individualism vs Collectivism FBM)

Answer 23

The researchers studied five countries - China, Germany, Turkey, the UK and the USA - to see if there was any difference in the rate of flashbulb memories in collectivistic and individualistic culture

Question 24

Participants and Procedure of Kulkofsky 2011 (Individualism vs Collectivism FBM)

Answer 24

274 adults from five different countries - China, Germany, Turkey, the UK and the USA. All participants were identified as “middle class.’

Participants were given five minutes to recall as many memories as they could of public events in their lifetime. They were then given a memory questionnaire which was similar to the one used by Brown & Kulik (1977). These questions included where they had learned of the event, what time of day it was and what they were doing when they heard about it. They were then asked questions about the importance of the event - including how personally important it was, how surprised they were and how often they had spoken about it since it happened. All questionnaires were provided in the native language of the participants.

Question 25

Results of Kulkofsky 2011 (Individualism vs Collectivism FBM)

Answer 25

The researchers found that in a collectivistic culture like China, personal importance and intensity of emotion played less of a role in predicting flashbulb memories, compared with more individualistic cultures that place greater emphasis on an individual's personal involvement and emotional experiences. Because focusing on the individual's own experiences is often de-emphasized in the Chinese context, there would be less rehearsal of the triggering event compared with participants from other cultures - and thus a lower chance of developing a flashbulb memory. However, it was found that if the event was of national importance, then there was no significant difference in the creation of flashbulb memories.

Question 26

Conclusion of Kulkofsky 2011 (Individualism vs Collectivism FBM)

Answer 26

The conclusion that can be drawn from this is that personal importance and intensity of emotion played less of a role in predicting flashbulb memories, compared with more individualistic cultures that place greater emphasis on an individual's personal involvement and emotional experiences

Question 27

Evaluation of Kulkofsky 2011 (Individualism vs Collectivism FBM)

Answer 27

+ Control of translation influencing as a confounding variable by using back-translation - The study used back-translation to make sure that the translation of the questionnaires was not a confounding variable. This increases the credibility of the study. The survey and instructions were constructed in English and then translated and back-translated into Mandarin Chinese, German, and Turkish by bilingual research assistants. + Avoiding interviewer effects - A representative of the culture administered the test and the questionnaires were given in the native languages of the participants. This avoids interviewer effects. - There is the danger of the ecological fallacy - just because the participants come from the culture being studied, this does not mean that they necessarily share the traits of the culture's predominant dimensions - that is, just because I am American does not mean that I process flashbulb memories like other Americans. - It is an etic approach to researching cultural difference. It is possible that cultural factors affected how information was self reported. It cannot be verified in this study whether those personal memories actually exist but were not reported

Question 28

Aim of Berry 1967 (Temne vs Inuit)

Answer 28

Investigate cultural differences in the pressure to conform

Question 29

Participants and Procedure of Berry 1967 (Temne vs Inuit)

Answer 29

- This study involved three groups of participants - the Temne of Sierra Leone (a society based on rice farming), the Inuit people of Northern Canada (a society based on hunting and fishing), and Scottish people (as a reference group). Each group consisted of around 120 participants ​ - Each participant was shown a series of cards. Each card had one line indicated as the "Standard Line", and several lines indicated as "Comparison lines". Participants had to select which of the Comparison lines matched the Standard line in length. (See the picture below for an example of this - the correct answer is Line 2) - After completing the task with two cards, on the third card, participants were told, "Here's a hint: most Temne / Inuit / Scottish people think that the correct answer is Line ___", as the experimenter points to a particular line. On this card, the experimenter points to the correct line. ​ - For the next three cards (cards 4-6), the experimenter repeats the "Hint", except points to the wrong line. The point of the study was to see whether participants ignore the faulty advice and choose the correct line, or follow their group in choosing the incorrect line

Question 30

Results of Berry 1967 (Temne vs Inuit)

Answer 30

- The Temne had the highest rate of conformity, choosing the incorrect line when they believed that most Temne had also chosen that line, even when it was obviously the wrong answer ​ - The Inuit had the lowest rate of conformity, tending to choose the correct line even when they believed that other Inuit had chosen a different line

Question 31

Conclusion of Berry 1967 (Temne vs Inuit)

Answer 31

- This study suggests that cultures vary in the pressure to conform. The Temne culture is the most conformist, while the Inuit culture is the most individualistic ​ - The researchers speculate that the reason for this difference is how each culture produces food. The Temne are a rice farming society, and planting rice requires the co-ordination of many people, making it especially important to conform to the group's decisions. On the other hand, the Inuit are a society of hunters and fishers, which is primarily done individually - making conformity less crucial for survival

Question 32

Evaluation of Berry 1967 (Temne vs Inuit)

Answer 32

- This study uses a simple yet effective way of measuring conformity, which is otherwise difficult to quantify. The results of the study are easy to replicate, and the sample size (120 participants from each group) is quite robust ​ - Matching two lines in length in an experiment is an artificial task, and one which has no real-life consequences for the participants. It is debatable whether this task accurately represents conformity in real life, and so the ecological validity of this study is questionable ​ - Since this is a correlational study, it is impossible to know for sure why some cultures appear to conform more than others. The researchers explain the difference in terms of rice farming vs. hunting cultures, but there may be other factors that could explain the difference

Question 33

Aim of Zaidi and Shuraydi 2002 (Arranged Marriage)

Answer 33

Investigated attitudes towards arranged marriages in a group of second-generation Pakistan Muslim women who were brought up in Canada.

Question 34

Participants and Procedure of Zaidi and Shuraydi 2002 (Arranged Marriage)

Answer 34

Muslim second generation pakistani women living in USA/Canada. Unstructured interviews, no interview guide to build rapport with interviewees to increase validity of results

Question 35

Results of Zaidi and Shuraydi 2002 (Arranged Marriage)

Answer 35

Valued parental opinion but not let them choose. No arranged marriage unless serious situation with parents Believe relationship is built on love. Evidence of acculturative stress and there is conflict between the family and causes mental and physical strain "It was an agonising stressful process"

Question 36

Conclusion/Evaluation of Zaidi and Shuraydi 2002 (Arranged Marriage)

Answer 36

Acculturative stress effects relationships especially parental opinion.

Question 37

Aim of Ogihara and Uchida 2014 (Indiv Makes Collect Unhappy)

Answer 37

To investigate the effect of individualistic work on Japanese women

Question 38

Participants and Procedure of Ogihara and Uchida 2014 (Indiv Makes Collect Unhappy)

Answer 38

334 adult Japanese women who worked for a large company where performance and achievement oriented goals were posted on a wall Participants answered questionnaires related to individualistic and collectivist orientation, and subjective well being of their relationships

Question 39

Results of Ogihara and Uchida 2014 (Indiv Makes Collect Unhappy)

Answer 39

Results suggest that even in the study's achievement oriented environment, Japanese pps who were achievement oriented scored lower on subjective well being and had fewer close friends

Question 40

Conclusionof Ogihara and Uchida 2014 (Indiv Makes Collect Unhappy)

Answer 40

The decreased levels of well being in the Japanese sample may be due to the transition japan is currently experiencing. where globalization is leading a transition to a more individualistic work space and maintain the collectivistic values in society.

Question 41

Evaluation of Ogihara and Uchida 2014 (Indiv Makes Collect Unhappy)

Answer 41

STRENGTHS:- able to show how globalization is affecting one cultural context of japan especially as it is on the other end of the spectrum LIMITATIONS:- as the research instrument was questionnaires there is a chance of influenced social desirability in the answers from the participant raising questions about if the findings could be externally valid.

Question 42

Aim of Lueck and Wilson 2010 (Acculturative Stress)

Answer 42

Investigate the factors that can affect acculturation stress in Asian immigrants to America

Question 43

Participants and Procedure of Lueck and Wilson 2010 (Acculturative Stress)

Answer 43

- The sample of this study was around 2,000 Asian-Americans. Around half of the sample were born in Asia and had immigrated to America, while the other half were the children of immigrants. A variety of Asian cultures were represented (including Chinese, Vietnamese, and others). The interviewers had a similar cultural background to the participants, and could speak their native language. ​ - The participants were interviewed about their acculturation experiences. The interviews were semi-structured, meaning that all participants were asked a number of prepared, standard questions, while additional follow-up questions could also be asked later.

Question 44

Results of Lueck and Wilson 2010 (Acculturative Stress)

Answer 44

- Around 70% of participants reported feelings of acculturation stress ​ - Participants who were fully bilingual had the lowest rates of acculturation stress. Being fully bilingual helped participants maintain strong ties to their Asian culture while also being able to integrate in American society. ​ - Experiences of discrimination, prejudice or stereotyping significantly increased acculturation stress ​ - Participants who shared similar values with their family had lower acculturation stress, perhaps because of less family conflict over different cultural values ​ - Participants who were very satisfied with their economic opportunities in American also had lower acculturation stress

Question 45

Conclusion of Lueck and Wilson 2010 (Acculturative Stress)

Answer 45

Acculturation stress is very common amongst immigrants. Language proficiency, family cohesion, economic opportunities, and prejudice are all factors that affect acculturation stress

Question 46

Evaluation of Lueck and Wilson 2010 (Acculturative Stress)

Answer 46

- Strengths of this study include a very large sample size, a diverse sample comprised of different cultures, and the use of interviewers who had the same cultural and language background as the participants ​ - It is difficult and time-consuming to analyze such a large amount of interview data. There is the risk of researcher bias, in which researchers only look for patterns in the data that confirm their hypotheses - It may be difficult to translate questions reliably from one language to another, and people from different cultures may interpret the questions differently

Question 47

Aim of Fagot 1978 (Gender Roles)

Answer 47

The aim of this study was to observe parental reactions to behaviour that wasn't deemed appropriate for the child's gender, at least according to American culture at the time.

Question 48

Participants and Procedure of Fagot 1978 (Gender Roles)

Answer 48

24 families, 12 families with boys and 12 with girls. Toddlers and their parents were observed in their homes using an observation checklist.

Question 49

Results of Fagot 1978 (Gender Roles)

Answer 49

Parents reacted significantly more favorably to the child when the child was engaged in gender-appropriate behavior and were more likely to give negative responses to "gender inappropriate" behaviors.

Question 50

Conclusion of Fagot 1978 (Gender Roles)

Answer 50

In the follow up interviews with the parents, it was found that the parents perceptions of their interactions with their children did not correlate with what was observed by the researchers, indicating that this is not a conscious behaviour. This study demonstrates enculturation as it shows parents directly teaching and instructing children about what is and isn't appropriate behaviour according to their culture's gender norms.

Question 51

Evaluation of Fagot 1978 (Gender Roles)

Answer 51

Strengths: + Uses method triangulation, interviews & observations. Increases the credibility of the findings. Limitations: - Limited to a single culture. Difficult to generalise.

Question 52

Aim of Becker 2002 (TV Affects Fiji Women's Body Image)

Answer 52

To investigate effect of prolonged exposure of TV on attitudes to eating and eating behaviours in Fijian adolescent girls.

Question 53

Participants and Procedure of Becker 2002 (TV Affects Fiji Women's Body Image)

Answer 53

Naturalistic experiment as introduction on TV was natural. Used a prospective multi wave cross sectional design. Adolescent girls from Fiji. Independent groups design. 1st sample: 63 girls in 1995 several weeks before TV came in. 2nd sample: different set of 65 girls studied in 1998. Combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. 1st Completed EAT-26 survey (measures behaviours associated with eating disorders) - obtained quantitative data. Score of 20 = high indicates concern. Separate questions asked about TV viewing. Those who initially scored high then asked to participate in a semi structured interview. 2nd Extra questions about body image, dieting and how they saw their parents views. Qualitative data gathered using open ended questions in semi structured interviews using 30 girls from original sample.

Question 54

Results of Becker 2002 (TV Affects Fiji Women's Body Image)

Answer 54

Percentage of those with high EAT-26 score increased by 16.5%. Proportion of sample that used vomiting to lose weight increased by 11.3% from 0%. 77% stated TV influenced their body image. 40% justified desire to eat less or lose weight as a means of improving career or becoming more useful at home.

Question 55

Conclusion/Evaluation of Becker 2002 (TV Affects Fiji Women's Body Image)

Answer 55

Identifying with role models on TV changed body image in the period of the study. Cultural values about dieting/weight were changing between the girls.

Question 56

What Studies Link to Social Identity Theory

Answer 56

Tajfel, Schaller

Question 57

What Studies Link to Social Cognitive Theory

Answer 57

Bandura, Odden and Rochat

Question 58

What Studies Link to Formation of Stereotypes and Their Effects on Behaviour

Answer 58

Schaller, Correll

Question 59

What Studies Link to Cultural Dimensions

Answer 59

Berry, Kulkofsky

Question 60

What Studies Link to Culture and Its Influence

Answer 60

Berry, Kulkofsky

Question 61

What Studies Link to Enculturation

Answer 61

Odden and Rochat, Fagot

Question 62

What Studies Link to Acculturation

Answer 62

Lueck and Wilson, Zaidi and Shuraydi

Question 63

What Studies Link to Influence of Globalisation

Answer 63

Ogihara and Uchida, Becker