study aid 2 Flashcards
(88 cards)
1
Q
N & E System speed of transmission and duration of signals
A
NS - rapid (msec)
ES - slow, long-lasting (min-hrs)
2
Q
N & E System distance chemical message travels
A
NS - close; cell-to-cell
ES - cells far apart
3
Q
N & E System voluntary vs involuntary control
A
NS - voluntary & involuntary control
ES - involuntary control
4
Q
N & E System hydrophobic vs hydrophilic of NTs vs hormones
A
NS - hydrophilic
ES - hydrophilic & hydrophobic
5
Q
N & E System location of cellular receptors on target cells
A
NS - extracellular receptors
ES - on surface & intracellular
6
Q
methods of hormone therapy
A
short amino acid-based hormone therapies - ingested and absorbed thru SI
large amino acid-based hormone therapies - injected
steroid hormones - injected for localized treatment, ingested for system wide exposure, and absorbed thru skin
7
Q
GPs & APs activated channel
A
GP - ligand-gated or chemical or physical channel
AP - voltage-gated channel
8
Q
GPs & APs amplitude
A
GP - varies w/ initiating event
AP - all-or-none
9
Q
GPs & APs amplitude w/distance
A
GP - decreases w/distance from activation
AP - remains the same at each point along axon
10
Q
GPs & APs electrical polarity
A
GP - depolarizing (excitatory) & hyperpolarizing (inhibitory)
AP - only depolarizing
11
Q
GPs & APs threshold
A
GP - None
AP - less negative than -55 mV
12
Q
GPs & APs Refractory peroid
A
GP - None
AP - Yes
13
Q
GPs & APs can be summed
A
GP - yes
AP - no
14
Q
what cells can undergo GP
A
neurons and muscle cells
15
Q
GP - temporal summation
A
two NTs in succession on a single dendrite - no AP
16
Q
GP - spatial summation
A
two NTs coming in at two different dendrites, AP
17
Q
EPSP & IPSP
A
excitatory postsynaptic potential - Na+ channel activate, nonspecific ion channels activate (more Na+ or K+ in) and Ca2+ channels activate. Must dominate and bring MP to threshold
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential - K+ and Cl- activation
18
Q
Voltage-gated ion channels (Na+, K+, Ca2+), axon hillock, axon, axon terminal. What would blocking each of these ion channels do to neuronal signaling
A
Na+ problem
- axon hillock - no AP
- axon - AP can’t travel/propagate
- terminal - NT can’t release
K+ problem
- hillock - prolonged depolarization
- axon - AP fail to propagate properly
- terminal - affect synaptic timing
Ca2+ problem
- hillock - No effect on AP
- axon - no effect on AP
- terminal - NT can’t release
19
Q
absolute refractory period
A
Na+ channels are inactivated. From depolarization to early repolarization
20
Q
relative refractory period
A
Some Na+ channels are able to reactivate, stronger-than-normal stimulus required for an AP.
21
Q
higher frequency on APs
A
lead to a higher firing frequency. Voltage changes in the dendrites and cell body act as the input that influences the frequency of APs in the axon.
22
Q
removal of NTs
A
- diffuses from synaptic cleft
- degraded by enzyme
- taken up by presynaptic terminal or astrocyte
23
Q
pre vs postsynaptic cell
A
presynaptic = conducts impulse toward synapse, vesicles store NT
postsynaptic - NT receptors
24
Q
removal of Ca2+ from the cytosol
A
primary active transport - Ca2+ ATPase
secondary - Na+/Ca2+ exchanger
25
conduction velocity
1. Speed of electrical propagation
- axon diameter: larger - faster conduction - low electrical resistance - AP travels farther
2. Degree of myelination
- APs traveling through myelinated neurons propagate about 30x faster
26
multiple sclerosis
autoimmune disease where oligodendrocytes of the CNA are destroyed, inflamed, and hardened
Impulse conduction slows/ceases. Lose control of inhibitory neurons. AP missed = muscle weakness, lose control of body f(x), visual/speech disturbances, and urinary incontinence
27
where are the classic endocrine glands located?
Hypothalamus
pineal gland
pituitary gland
thyroid gland
parathyroid glands
adrenal glands
pancreas
ovary
testis
28
hypothalamus hormones
ALL are tropic hormones through hypophyseal portal system
Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
29
anterior pituitary hormones
All are tropic except prolactin
all except GH activate cAMP through GPCR
All are protein hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Prolactin (PRL)
Growth Hormone (GH)
30
posterior pituitary hormones
No tropic, travel to axon terminals by motor hormone-containing vesicles, made by neuronal cell bodies in hypothalamus
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone
31
pineal gland hormone
melatonin
32
amino acid based hormones
hydrophilic
amino acid derivatives, peptides, & proteins
33
steroid hormone
hydrophobic
synthesized from cholesterol
34
construction: AAB & steroids
A: transcription & translation in RER
S: construction by SER
35
storage: AAB & steroids
A: in vesicles
S: no storage, made when needed
36
release: AAB & steroids
A: exocytosis
S: simple diffusion
37
duration in blood: AAB & steroids
A: short-lived, removed by kidney or liver
S: long-lived, protected from kidney & liver, attached to plasma proteins
38
blood transport: AAB & steroids
A: water-soluble, free in plasma
S: rides on plasma proteins: albumin & globulin
39
receptor location: AAB & steroids
A: surface of cells - G protein couple receptors
S: cytosol or nucleus
40
what are the steroid hormones
adrenal cortex: aldosterone, cortisol, and androgens
gonads: progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone
41
Amino-acid signaling steps
1. Hormone binds to receptor
2. Receptor activates G protein
3. G protein activates adenylate cyclase
4. Adenylate cyclase concerts ATP to cAMP (2nd messenger)
5. cAMP activates protein kinases
6. Phosphorylated proteins trigger responses of target cells
42
steroid signaling steps
1. the steroid diffuses through PM & binds an intracellular (cytosolic/nuclear) receptor
2. The receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus
3. The receptor-hormone complex binds to a specific DNA region
4. Binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA.
5. The mRNA directs protein synthesis
43
humoral stimuli
blood-based factor of ion concentrations (glucose, O2, Na+, K+, Ca2+)
44
neural stimuli
neuron releasing NT into the blood
45
hormonal stimuli
enhancing or inhibiting hormone released by another hormone (tropic)
46
hyposecretion vs hypersecretion & examples
determines amount of hormone released
hyper - gigantism & acromegaly - over proliferation of ant pit gland - tumor
hypo - pituitary dwarfism
47
hypo vs hyper responsiveness of receptors & examples
of receptors
type 2 diabetes - (hypo) receptors not paying attention/working
48
pathology: hypocortisolism caused by too little steroid hormone production by the adrenal cortex
primary
49
pathology: hypoparathyroidism caused by too little secretion of parathyroid hormone
primary
50
pathology: gigantism caused by pituitary tumor
primary
51
pathology: hyperthyroidism caused by too much secretion of thyroid hormone
primary
52
pathology: hyperthyroidism caused by too much secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone
secondary
53
pathology: gigantism caused by too much secretion of growth hormone releasing hormone
secondary
54
erythropoietin: what organs produces it, what stimulates production, where are the receptors, what processes does it promote, how is it regulated?
organ - kidney
stimulate - increase/decrease in O2
receptors - red bone marrow
processes - erythropoiesis
regulated - oxygen, anemia, hemorrhage
55
thrombopoietin: what organs produces it, what stimulates production, where are the receptors, what processes does it promote
organ - liver & kidney
stimulate - increase/decrease thrombocytes
receptors - bone marrow
processes - thrombopoiesis
56
GHRH function, receptors, hypothalamus inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
promote release of growth hormone
receptors found on anterior pituitary gland
GH & IGF-1 receptors on hypo surface
stimulated by low growth hormone
inhibited by GHIH
57
GHIH function, receptors, hypothalamus inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
prevent release of growth hormone
receptors found on anterior pituitary gland
stimulated by high growth hormone
inhibited by GHRH
58
GnRH function, receptors, hypothalamus inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
stimulate release of LH & FSH
receptors on anterior pituitary gland
has prolactin, estrogen, & testosterone receptors for inhibit on surface
stimulated by low test/est
59
TRH function, receptors, hypothalamus inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
stimulate release of TSH
receptors on anterior pituitary gland
has T3 & T4 receptors on hypo surface
stimulated by low T3 & T4
inhibited by T3 & 4
60
CRH function, receptors, hypothalamus inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
stimulate release of ACTH
receptors on anterior pituitary gland
has cortisol receptors
stimulated by stress, circadian rhythm, low blood glucose
inhibited by cortisol
61
PIH function, receptors, hypothalamus inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
prevent release of prolactin
receptors on anterior pituitary
inhibiting receptors high prolactin
62
FSH function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
gamete production
granulosa & sertoli cells
gonadal hormone receptors to inhibit
stimulated by GnRH
inhibited by gonadal hormones
63
LH function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
trigger ovulation, testosterone production
receptors on granulosa, theca, and leydig cells
pit gland has gonadal hormone receptors to inhibit
stimulated by GnRH
inhibited by gonadal hormones
64
ACTH function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
release cortisol
receptors on adrenal cortex
gonadal hormone receptors on pit gland to inhibit
stimulated by CRH & stress
inhibited by cortisol
65
TSH function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
normal development & secretion of thyroid
receptors on thyroid gland
T3 & 4 receptors on gland to inhibit
stimulated by TRH
inhibited by T3 & 4
66
prolactin function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
milk production
receptors on mammary glands
ant pit has PIH receptors
stimulated by suckling
inhibited by PIH
67
GH function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
protein synthesis, increase BP, metabolism, growth
receptors found on adipose, liver, muscle, bone
IGF-1 receptors on pit gland to inhibit
stimulated by GHRH, hypoglycemia
inhibited by GHIH, hyperglycemia, excessive IGF-1
68
oxytocin function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
uterine contractions, milk ejection
receptors in the uterus, mammary glands, hypothalamus
stimulated by suckling and uterine contractions
positive feedback
69
ADH function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
inhibit much urination, regulate water balance
receptors on collecting ducts of kidneys & BVs
stimulated by low BP and hypernatremia
inhibited by alcohol & diuretics
70
melatonin function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
sleep
receptors in anterior pituitary & hypothalamus
receptors like photoreceptors and melatonin receptors inhibit
stimulated by the dark
inhibited by the light/blue light
71
T3&T4 function, receptors, storage, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
metabolic rate & heat production, increase blood glucose and fat and BP and HR, tissue growth of skeletal, nervous, & repro systems
found on most cells
stored as precursor thyroglobulin in colloid
When stored as thyroglobulin, they are hydrophilic, when in active form (iodine), hydrophobic. In BS, they are are bound to proteins
72
parathyroid hormone function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by,
increase Ca2+ by increasing break down of bone, Ca2+ reabsorption (kidney), activation of Vit D (kidney -> Ca2+ absorption thru vit D & PTH in SI)
stimulated by low calcium
73
glucagon function, receptors, inhibiting receptors (surface or inner), stimulated by, inhibited by
raises blood sugar, gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis
stimulated by low blood glucose (humoral)
74
insulin function, receptors, stimulated by, inhibited by
lowers blood sugar, raises acetylcholine, amino acids, store glucose in muscle or fat cells, use glucose for ATP production, glycogen synthesis in liver & muscle, inhibit glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis
stimulated by high blood glucose (humoral)
75
diabetes insipidus
ADH deficiency, kidney receptors insensitive to ADH, excess//diluted urine
76
syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)
retention of fluid leading to hyponatremia, too much ADH, body swells
77
hyper vs hypoparathyroidism
hyper - (tumor) more PTH causes osteoporosis, kidney stone formation, & increased Ca2+ depresses NS & blocks v-gated Nat+ channels
hypo - (gland trauma/removal) low blood Ca2+ leads to membrane depolarization, muscular tetanus (constant m. contraction), respiratory paralysis & death
78
iodine deficiency (hypothyroidism)
causes intellectual disability, goiter, overstimulation of follicular cells by TSH - no negative feedback to turn down TRH, TSH
79
graves disease (hyperthyroidism)
overstimulation of follicular cells by antibody to TSH receptor, keeps making thyroglobulin and thyroid enlarges
80
calcitonin - function, regulation, receptors
produced by parafollicular cells, reduces blood Ca2+ levels, inhibits osteoclast activity and inhibits release of ca from bone matrix (receptors), stimulate Ca2+ uptake and incorporation into bone matrix. (calcium goes up, calcitonin goes up to bring it down)
81
difference between acinar cells, alpha, and beta cells?
acinar cells (exocrine) produce enzyme-rich juice for digestion
alpha (endocrine) produce glucagon
beta (endocrine) produce insulin
82
insulin secretion steps
1. Facilitated diffusion
2. Stimulate ATP production
3. Increases ATP/ADP ration
4. Closes K+ ATP channel
5. Membrane depolarization
6. Ca2+ influx
7. Ca2+ dependent exocytosis of insulin
83
difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus
Type 1 - hyposecretion - low production
Type 2 - hyposecretion & hypoactivity - poor receptor sensitivity
both end up with high blood glucose levels
84
similarities & differences of diabetes insipidus and mellitus
similarities - polyuria, polydipsia
differences - mellitus causes hyperglycemia which can stimulate autophagy, cells metabolize fate and generate ketones. urine is high in glucose
85
advantages for using the A1C test verses the blood glucose test
more reliable, less affected by short-term changes, longer-term average of blood sugar levels
86
- high blood glucose and low A1C
- high blood glucose and high A1C
- low/normal blood glucose and high A1C
- hyperglycemia
- Diabetes mellitus (type 2)
- Diabetes mellitus (type 1 or 2) or hyperinsulinism
87
What causes the two forms of diabetes mellitus and what are some treatments?
Type 1 is an autoimmune disorder when the immune system attacks beta cells. Treat with insulin injections and blood sugar monitoring
Type 2 is caused by insulin resistance so pancreas produces more insulin. Treat with blood glucose monitoring and meds
88
Why do ketones and acetone accumulate in the blood of diabetic patients?
They accumulate because of fat is being metabolized in the absence of glucose
