Study tips

Question 1

Guidelines for translating Latin:

Answer 1

1. Latin is not hidden English in form, vocabulary or grammar. Don’t treat Latin sentences as though they are in the same word order and layout as English.
2. (a) Don’t try to find an English meaning for each seperate Latin word, to see if accumulating the seperate words in English gives the meaning of the sentence.
   (b) Don’t believe that a Latin sentence is simply equivalent to English words in a mixed up order.
3. (a) Phrases, subordinate clauses and main clauses are all ‘word-groups’.
   (b) the arrangement of word-groups in a sentence is crucial to the meaning.
   (c) the order of words within a Latin word-group always obeys logical patterns.
   (d) The order of word-groups in a sentence also always obeys a logical pattern.
   (e) you can train your eyes to recognise all these patterns
   (f) Read and re-read each sentence so as to understand its structure
   and its constructions, before you start to translate it.
4. (a) Each word is signpost to the words around them, giving you a grammatical sense.
   (b) The endings of the words are as important as the beginnings. The endings tell you the grammar of the sentence, i.e. how the words
   are related to one another.
5. How to recognise a subordinate clause word-group:
   - it has to start with a conjunction like cum, ut, postquam or the like; or a relative word like qui
   - It cannot form a sentence by itself but is subordinate to a main clause. Sometimes the main clause is implied but not given.
   e.g. Cur fles? Quia capitis dolorem habeo
6. How to recognise a phrase:
   (a) a phrase is a word-group that does not have a finite verb
   - may be governed by a preposition e.g. ex urbe, ab urbe condita, propter gaudium, in Britanniam, ad urbem videndam, multa cum laude
   - may consist of words describing a person, thing or event mentioned nearby, e.g. urbem ingressus, librum legentes, capillis longissimis,
   multis annis, maximae pulchritudinis
   - may be an Ablative Absolute phrase, a gerundival phrase of purpose, or the like. E.g. Cicerone consule, senatu vocato, ad urbem
   pulcherrimam aedificandam, pacis petendae causa
   (b) You can easily recognise a phrase if it starts with a preposition, but to recognise other phrases you must practise
7. (a) A word-group of any kind (main clause, subordinate clause, or phrase), once it has begun, has to be grammatically finished, before the writer can continue with the rest of the sentence whether this is short or long.
   (b) The only exception to 7a is that one word-group can ‘embrace’ another one. E.g. Cicero, qui olim consul erat, nunc in senatum raro venit
   (d) A Latin phrase can ‘embrace’ a subordinate clause, and a
   subordinate clause can ‘embrace’ a phrase. E.g. urbe quae magna erat condita, and ut Romam multis post annis iterum videret.
   (e) If one main clause embraces a second, the second one has to be in brackets or between long dashes.
8. (a) In narrative Latin sentences, all the events are reported in the proper event order, even when the various events are stated in various
   types of word-groups.
   (b) In descriptive (non-narrative) Latin sentences, the various wordgroups are written in the order that seems most logical to the author.
9. In Latin, every sentence carries a Message. The Message is not always given by just the grammar and vocabulary of the sentence: it also depends on the context around the sentence, the choice of words in the sentence and the placing of them. The Message is as important as the grammar and vocabulary.

Question 2

Ten basic reading rules for Latin:

Answer 2

1. A new sentence or passage should be read through completely, several times if necessary, so as to see all words in context.
2. As you read, register mentally the ending of each word so as to recognise how the words in the sentence relate to each other
3. Recognise the way in which the sentence is structured: it’s Main Clauses(s), subordinate clauses and phrases. Read them in sequence to achieve this recognition and re-read the sentence as often as necessary without translating it
4. Now look up unfamiliar words in the dictionary and once you know what all the words can mean ,re-read the Latin to improve your grasp of the context and clarify what the words in this sentence do mean.
5. If translating, only translate when you have seen exactly how the senetence works and what it means. Do not translate in order to find out what the sentence means. Uderstand first then translate.
6. (a) once a sub-ordinate clause or phrase is begun, it must be completed syntactically before the rest of the sentence can proceed.
   (b) when one subordinate construction embraces another, the embraced one must be completed before the embracing one can proceed
   (c) a main clause must be completed before another main clause can start
7. normally the words most emphasised by an author are placed at the beginning and end, and all the words in between contribute to the overall sense, including those forming an embraced or dependent word-group
8. the words within two or more word-groups are never mixed up together.
9. all the action in a narrative sentence are narrated in the order in which they occurred.
10. analytical sentences are written with phrases and clauses in the order that is most logical to the author. the sequence of thought is signposted by the placing of word-groups and key words.

Question 3

Ten hacks for translating Latin:

Answer 3

1. Translate the ‘future less vivid condition’ as “were to/would”
   e.g. si tu mihi cervisiam des, libens accipiam = if you were to give me a beer, I would gladly take it
2. The word ‘modo’ means ‘only’ and ‘just’
   e.g. eam modo vidi = I just saw her or
   tu modo ausculta = you just listen
   It’s common with imperatives.
3. Translate the particle ‘quidem’ as “yes” or “it’s true” or don’t translate it at all.
   It implies or points forward to a contrast, usually marked by the word ‘sed’.
   e.g. homo stultus quidem est, sed bonus = the guy is an idiot, its true, but he’s good.
   Never translate it as ‘indeed’, that is outdated.
4. Three tricks for figuring out the meaning of a verb
   (i) find the present participle and get the genitive, you should spot an english word before the -is
   (ii) find the 4th principle part; you will spot an English word there too
   (iii) try different prefixes until one hit’s on an English word
5. If you do not know the meaning of a Latin noun, just call it the same thing in English.
   you will figure it out from the context or you will not, it does not matter.
   e.g. ego tibi dabo hunc cadum = I will give you this cadus
6. If you do not know the meaning of a compound verb of ‘ferre’, replace the fer- or -lat- with -port-
   e.g. relatus = report or
   translata = transport
7. The words ‘verum’ and ‘vero’ at the start of a sentence or clause (the first word or two) mean ‘but’.
8. Equidem means ‘I myself’ or ‘I personally’ or ‘I’.
   e.g. audio, ere, equidem atque animum advorto = I hear you, master, and I am paying attention
9. Translate ‘nam’ or ‘enim’ as “you see”.
   e.g. non edepol habeo profecto , nam iam pridem vendidi = good lord, I really dont have it; I sold it, you see, a long time ago.
10. The word ‘eo’ has four meanings in Latin
    (i) I am going
    (ii) to that place
    (iii) by/with/in him or it
    (iiii) untranslated word anticpating ‘qoud’ (because).
    You can learn all four by memorising the sentence
    ‘eo eo eo eo qoud eum amo = I’m going there with him because I love him.

Question 4

7 tips for critical analysis

Answer 4

1. Your answer should be written in continous prose, not in bullet points or note form
2. Stick as closely as possible to the passage in front of you, and don’t just use it as a ‘jumping off’ point for discussing the author or work in general, citing other poems in reference may be apporopriate but should be kept brief.
3. Avoid paraphrase instead analyse theme/style/mood and tone
4. Aim to discuss the whole passage
5. Start by putting the passage briefly in context: for Cicero you need to give an idea of roughly where the passage comes in the speech and idenitify an characters/events reffered to same goes for Catullus - idenitify poem type.
6. (i) go through the passage sequentially picking out relevant points as you go or
   (ii) adopt a more thematic approach citing different parts of the passage to back up your analysis where relevant
   e.g. when discussing Cicero, consider rhetorical strategy, style and characterisation
   either way your analysis should aim to give a coherent account/interpration of the passage as a whole not just a series of disjointed observations
7. always illustrate your points by specific line reference to the passage (not neccessary to qoute -except single words or phrases)

Question 5

Features of critical analysis to look out for

Answer 5

• What theme(s) is/are developed in the poem (Catullus)? What does the passage
  contribute to the argument of the speech and the orator’s overarching rhetorical
  strategy (Cicero)? Does the poem or passage seem to reflect particular concerns of the
  collection/speech as a whole, and what if anything does it tell us about the writer’s
  values and ideals?
• How does the passage characterize the narrator/speaker, his relationship with the
  addressee (in the case of Catullus) and any other individuals involved?
• Does the poem/passage contain backward or forward references to other parts of the
  collection/speech? If so, what are their implications?
• Does the passage display any characteristic features of the author’s style (e.g. tricolon in
  Cicero, antithesis or rhetorical balance in both writers)? You should aim to say
  something about the effect of these features in their immediate context, rather than
  simply point them out as typical of the author (e.g. tricolon is often used for emphasis;
  rhetorical balance may bring out comparisons or contrasts between characters or
  situations).
• Is the writer’s language elevated or colloquial (in Cicero’s case, look out also for use of
  superlatives, longer sentences in argumentative passages versus the plainer style often
  used where the orator purports to be reporting facts)?
• Are particular items of
  vocabulary thematically significant or typical of this author (you might think particularly
  about the language of urbanitas and ‘aristocratic obligation’ in the case of Catullus, and
  vocabulary connected with drama and the theatre in Cicero)?
• Are word-placement and word-order used to create specific effects (such as significant
  juxtapositions, emphatic placement of important words)? This is something to look out
  for particularly in Catullus’ epigrams, where word-patterning is often quite elaborate,
  but examples can be found in Cicero too.
• Does the passage contain any imagery (similes, metaphors)? If so, what effect does this
  have on the reader (does the imagery serve, e.g., to create pathos or contribute to the
  characterization of a particular individual)?
• Does the passage echo (or quote) earlier literary works? If so, what is the effect of the
  allusion? Does the poet modify or invert the passage alluded to, and – if so – are the
  changes thematically important? You should also explain (and, ideally, comment on the
  effect of) any allusive or periphrastic phrases, such as Catullus’ oraculum Iouis …
  aestuosi, 7.5.
• Does the poem/passage contain elements of humour? If so, explain how they work.

Question 6

6 more Latin translation hacks:

Answer 6

1. In Latin unemphatic personal pronouns (ego, tibi, ille, eam) are the second word of a sentence or a clause, if not they are emphatic.
   e.g. hunc ego hominem tam acrem, tam audacem, tam paratum…compulissem
   This tells you that (26 words later) Cicero will use a first person verb.
   It is a signpost to look out for that later verb and to interpret what relationship it might have to all those accussatives.
   It also indicates that there is nothing emphatic about ‘ego’ here.
2. Get used to dative with parts of the body
   e.g. lavo mihi manus = I am washing my hands
3. Get ready for ‘ideal second person subjunctive’, in English we say “you” to refer to “one” or “a person”.
   Latin does this too but puts the verb in the subjunctive
   e.g. naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret = you can drive human nature out with a pitchfork, but she will always find a way back in
   ‘expellas’ is subjunctive because the ‘you’ is generic.
4. “facio” can mean “I have been doing” aswell as “I am doing”. Similar to other verbs.
   Adverbs will help you spot it.
5. “Videor mihi” which means “I seem to myself “ can be better translated as “I think I” and look for the infinitive - sometimes authors leave out the ‘mihi’.
6. “Utinam” which is normally translated as “if only/would that” is better translated as “I wish” or “I hope” as if it were a verb.
   Which translation depends on the subjunctive, if it’s present = “I hope”
   e.g. utinam advenias = I hope you come!

If it’s imperfect or pluperfect = “I wish”
e.g. utinam advenisses = “I wish you would come”

Question 7

The last ten hacks for improving your Latin translation:

Answer 7

1. Latin words for ‘yes’ and ‘no’
   ‘ita’ = yes
   ‘minime’ = no
   ‘immo’ = no, no, no or actually
   You use the last word to contradict someone
2. In Latin a second person sg. future verb can be a polite imperative
   e.g. tu me diliges et valebis
3. Start translating ‘solere’ as “usually, normally, typically”. We know it is supposed to mean “I am accustomed to” but in today’s English it is better translated as an adverb
   e.g. clarior quam solis radii esse olim qoum sudumst solent = brighter than the sun’s rays usually are when it is hot out.
4. Learn the difference between séquere and sequére -
   Séquere (imperative or present indicative) is different from sequére (future).
   Similarly, víderis (perfect subjunctive or future perfect) is different from vidéris (you seem)
5. Realize that regi, duci, and legi can be two things. Those three words are either dative singular of rex, dux, and lex or the passive infinitives of regere, ducere, and legere. Only context will tell you which is which.
6. Learn qui meaning “how” or “why.”
   How do you say “Who?” in Latin? quis
   then you know that quī as the first word of a question sentence has to be something else.
   It means “How?” or “Why?,” and it’s way more common than you think.
7. The opposite of qui is quin. Quin as the first word of a question sentence means “why not?” or “why don’t?”
   e.g. Quin loquere quid vis? = why dont you say what you want?
   This one is the first word of a sentence and it takes either the second person indicative or imperative.
   There’s another use of quin in Latin, so be sure to tell them apart.
8. You learned that -ne indicates a question but did you know that an at the beginning of a sentence has exactly the same meaning.
   You don’t translate it, it’s just telling you the sentence is a question.
9. Eheu is o no! or oy veh! or alas! It’s a cry of grief.
   ‘eho’ is an interjection you use to get someone’s attention, especially when you want to ask, order, or fuss at him, or you think he’s full of it. Your translation will vary.
   e.g. eho Messenio, accede huc! = hey Messenio, come here or
   eho manedum = woah, hold on a second there
10. The meaning of ‘tandem’ in questions, elsewhere it means ‘finally/at last’ but in question it indicates impatience.
    e.g. quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? = how long will you keep abusing our patience Caitiline?!?