Stuff

Question 1

What is cellular respiration?

Answer 1

Cellular respiration is an exothermic reaction which occurs continuously in living cells to release energy for metabolic processes, including aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Question 2

Aerobic?

Answer 2

Aerobic respiration is when energy is released from a reaction with oxygen.

Question 3

Respiration?

Answer 3

Respiration is the process that the body uses to release energy from digested food (glucose)

Question 4

What do our cells need for respiration?

Answer 4

All organisms respire in order to release energy to fuel their living processes. The respiration can be aerobic, which uses glucose and oxygen.

Question 5

Where does the process of respiration occur?

Answer 5

The process of respiration occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. Energy is then released to aid in cellular processes.

Question 6

Respiration is a chemical process that releases energy.

Answer 6

Jiddah

Question 7

How do you calculate cardiac output?

Answer 7

The contraction and relaxation of muscles during each heartbeat is controlled by impulses from the nervous system.
The heart rate is the number of times the heart beats a minute. The strokevolume is the volume (litres) of blood is pushed into the aorta per beat.
Cardiac out it is the volume of blood pushed into the aorta per minute.
Regular exercise increases the strength of the muscle and ventricle size.
So fitter people often have bigger volumes,and their hearts can you be more slowly to achieve the same cardiac as a less fit person.

Question 8

Cardiac output

Answer 8

Cardiac output=stroke volume X heart rate

Litres/min) (Litres/beat) (beats/min

Question 9

What is the cardiac output of a heart that pumps 0.07 L of blood 55 times per minute?

Answer 9

0.07×55 = 3 .85 Liters/min

Question 10

Calculate the stroke volume for cardiac output of 5 Litres/min and a heart rate of 50 beats/min

Answer 10

5/50=0.1 litres

Question 11

What is cardiac output?

Answer 11

The contraction and relaxation of muscles during each heartbeat is controlled by impulses from the nervous system. The heart rate is the number of times the heart beats in a minute. The volume of blood pushed into the aorta in each beat is the stroke volume.It is measured in litres. The cardiac output is the volume of blood pushed into the aorta each minute, and can be calculated using the equation: cardiac output equals/volume times heart rate.

Question 12

What is the aortas function in the heart?

Answer 12

It carries blood to the rest of the body.

Question 13

What is the pulmonary artery function?

Answer 13

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the lungs. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

Question 14

What does the superior vena cava do?

Answer 14

It brings blood from the upper body.

Question 15

The left atrium:

Answer 15

The left-hand side of the heart collects oxygenated blood from the heart and pumps it round the body.

Question 16

The right atrium:

Answer 16

The right atrium contracts and pushes the blood into the right ventricle which in turn contracts, pushing the blood out of the pulmonary artery to the lungs to become oxygenated.

Question 17

The hearts right side:

Answer 17

The right side pumps blood through the pulmonary circuit (to the lungs), blood then returns to the left side which pumps blood through the systemic circuit (body).

Question 18

Definition of the heart?

Answer 18

The heart is a muscular organ. Its function is to pump blood. The cardiac muscle of the heart contracts to pump the blood from the atria into the ventricles and from the ventricles into the arteries. The cardiac muscle of the heart requires energy from respiration to continue to contract, and is supplied with the glucose and oxygen required by coronary arteries.

Question 19

Functions of the heart summary (1)

Answer 19

deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium, The atria relaxed, oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium.

Question 20

Functions of the heart(2)

Answer 20

The right ventricle contracts, the pressure on the tricuspid valve pushes it close to prevent blood moving back into the right atrium. The left ventricle contracts, the pressure on the bicuspid valve pushes it close to prevent blood moving back into the left atrium.

Question 21

Functions of the heart to summary(3)

Answer 21

The blood pressure is open the semilunar valve and moves into the pulmonary artery. The blood pressure is open the semilunar valve and moves into the aorta.

Question 22

The heart has two separate pumps however generally…

Answer 22

The blood flows into one side of the heart from a vein, goes into an atrium, then a ventricle, and out through an artery.

Question 23

The heart contains valves to prevent the blood flowing backwards:

Answer 23

The right side has tricuspid valve(a valve with three flaps)

The left side has a bicuspid valve(a valve with two flaps)

Question 24

How does a heart attack occur?

Answer 24

A heart attack occurs when blood stops Flowing to muscles in part of the heart, damaging them and stopping the heart pumping properly. If the heart stops completely it can often be started again by putting an electric shock through it(using a defibrillator)

Question 25

What do the tendons in a heart do?

Answer 25

The tendons stop valve is turning inside out.

Question 26

The septums function

Answer 26

The septum completely separates the two sides of the heart.

Question 27

What does the inferior vena cava do?

Answer 27

It brings blood from the lower body.

Question 28

Circulatory System

Answer 28

In the circulatory System blood flows away from the heart into arteries. These divide into narrow capillaries, which form fine networks running through tissues, blood returns to the heart in veins.With each beat heart squirts blood into arteries under high-pressure. Artery walls are thick to withstand this sudden increase in pressure, but it makes them stretch. A wave of stretching then passes along the artery walls. You feel this way as a pulse. After stretching muscle and elastic fibres in artery walls cause arteries to contract again the stretching contracting of arteries makes blood flow more smoothly.Blood flows under low pressure in the veins and so they only need thin walls. As you move, muscles in your skeleton how to push blood along the veins. Veins contain valves to prevent blood flow in the wrong way.

Question 29

What are arteries?

Answer 29

The blood pressure in arteries is higher than other blood vessels the pressure also varies as the heart contracts and relaxes, pushing pulses of blood into the arteries.

Question 30

How is the structure of archery adapted to these pressures

Answer 30

Drdddd

Question 31

What are veinns?

Answer 31

The blood pressure in the veins is lower than in other blood vessels. veins take blood back to the heart where it is pumped to the lungs to pick up new oxygen again.

Question 32

What do the capillaries do?

Answer 32

Substances are exchange between blood and cells as the capillaries passed through tissues. Capillaries connect the smallest branches of arteries and veins. Walls of capillaries are just one cell thick. Capillaries allow the exchange of molecules between the blood and the body cells. Molecules can diffuse across their walls. This exchange of molecules is not possible across the walls of other types of blood vessel.

Question 33

Exchange of molecules

Answer 33

Oxygen defuses through the capillary wall, into the tissue fluid, and the cells. Carbon dioxide defuses from the cells into the blood tissue fluid, then of course the capillary walls into the blood plasma.Glucose defuses from the blood plasma, across the capillary walls to the tissue fluid, and then to the cells. The waste products urea diffuses the cells of the liver, to the tissue fluid and across the capillary walls into the blood plasma.

Question 34

Controlling blood flow

Answer 34

In order to control blood flow through the vessels, the smooth muscles surrounding the arteries can construct which causes vasoconstriction or they can relax which causes vasodilation.

Question 35

Structure and function of blood vessels

Answer 35

Blood is transported in the arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood is pumped from the heart in the arteries. It is returned to the heart in the veins. The capillaries connect the two types of blood vessel and molecules are exchanged between the blood and the cells across their walls.

Question 36

Facts about arteries

Answer 36

Always carry blood away from the heart. Carry oxygenated blood, except for the pulmonary artery. Carry blood under high pressure. Have thick muscular and elastic walls to pump and accommodate blood. A type of supporting tissue called connective tissue provides strength. The channel in the blood vessel that carries blood the (Lumen) is narrow

Question 37

Facts about the veins

Answer 37

Always carry blood to the heart. Always carry deoxygenated blood, except for the pulmonary vein. Carry blood under low or negative pressure. Have thin walls-have less muscular tissue then arteries. Have less connective-tissue than arteries. Have a wide lumen.

Question 38

How do valves help blood flow In veins and muscles relax?

Answer 38

In your veins there are one-way valves that are placed about one inch apart that keep blood flowing in the right direction. When your leg muscles relax, the valves inside your veins. Close preventing the backward flow of blood down the legs.

Question 39

Why do we need blood?

Answer 39

To transport substances around the body,including oxygen and glucose to tissues,and removal of waste products,including carbon dioxide and urea. Blood also has important roles regarding the immune response.

Question 40

How are the lungs adapted to their function of gas exchange?

Answer 40

The alveoli are adapted to make gas exchange in lungs happen easily and efficiently. ... they give the lungs a really big surface area. they have moist, thin walls (just one cell thick) they have a lot of tiny blood vessels called capillaries.

Question 41

Were are cells suspended?

Answer 41

Cells are suspended in straw coloured liquid called plasma which carries dissolved substances around the body .

Question 42

Plasma function:

Answer 42

Transporting carbon dioxide, digested food molecules, urea and hormones; distributing heat.

Question 43

Red blood cells function:

Answer 43

Transporting oxygen required for aerobic respiration in body cells. Red blood cells have no nucleus - they lose it during their development - so they can pack in more haemoglobin. They are small and flexible so that they can fit through narrow blood capillaries. They have a biconcave shape - they are the shape of a disc that is curved inwards on both sides - to maximise their surface area for oxygen absorption. They are thin, so there is only a short distance for the oxygen to diffuse to reach the centre of the cell.

Question 44

White blood cells function:

Answer 44

There are several main types of white blood cell. Phagocytes About 70% of white blood cells are phagocytes. Phagocytes engulf and destroy unwanted microorganisms that enter the blood, by the process of phagocytosis. They are part of the body's immune system. Lymphocytes LymphocyteLymphocyte Lymphocytes make up about 25% of white blood cells. They are also part of the body's immune system. Lymphocytes produce soluble proteins called antibodies when a foreign body such as a microorganism enters the body.

Question 45

Platelets function:

Answer 45

Platelets Platelets are cell fragments produced by giant cells in the bone marrow. Platelets stop bleeding in two main ways: they have proteins on their surface that enable them to stick to breaks in a blood vessel and clump together they secrete proteins that result in a series of chemical reactions that make blood clot, which plugs a wound

Question 46

Plasma function

Answer 46

which is a liquid that carries these cells. It also transports important nutrients.

Question 47

Simple definitions of red and white blood cells and palates and plasmas.

Answer 47

Blood transports materials around the body and protects against disease. It contains: Red blood cells which transport oxygen. White blood cells which protect against disease. Blood platelets which help the blood to clot and repair a cut. Plasma which is a liquid that carries these cells. It also transports important nutrients.

Question 48

Osmosis

Answer 48

Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules, from a region where the water molecules are in higher concentration, to a region where they are in lower concentration, through a partially permeable membrane.

Question 49

Diffusion definition

Answer 49

Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Diffusion happens in liquids and gases because their particles move randomly from place to place. Diffusion is an important process for living things; it is how substances move in and out of cells.

Question 50

How is diffusion caused?

Answer 50

In gases and liquids, particles move randomly from place to place. The particles collide with each other or with their container. This makes them change direction. Eventually, the particles are spread through the whole container.

Question 51

Active transport definition:

Answer 51

Substances are transported passively down concentration gradients. Often, substances have to be moved from a low to a high concentration - against a concentration gradient. Active transport is a process that is required to move molecules against a concentration gradient.The process requires energy.

Question 52

Active transport in plants

Answer 52

For plants to take up mineral ions, ions are moved into root hairs, where they are in a higher concentration than in the dilute solutions in the soil. Active transport then occurs across the root so that the plant takes in the ions it needs from the soil around it.

Question 53

Active transport in animals

Answer 53

In animals, glucose molecules have to be moved across the gut wall into the blood. The glucose molecules in the intestine might be in a higher concentration than in the intestinal cells and blood – for instance, after a sugary meal – but there will be times when glucose concentration in the intestine might be lower. All the glucose in the gut needs to be absorbed. When the glucose concentration in the intestine is lower than in the intestinal cells, movement of glucose involves active transport. The process requires energy produced by respiration.

Question 54

What is Homeostasis?

Answer 54

The constant maintenance of internal conditions to maintain optimal conditions for cellular reactions.

Question 55

Glands:

Answer 55

A gland is an organ that contains cells which produce substances.An exocrine gland release what it produces on to a surface.often through a tube or duct. E.g -sweat glands -The pancreas releasing digestive enzymes into the gut. An endocrine gland releases hormones into the blood.

Question 56

What are hormones?

Answer 56

They are chemical messengers.They take time to get around the body.They are transported by the blood and carried to their target organ.

Question 57

What are target organs?

Answer 57

An organ that is affected by a particular hormone. For example...... growth hormones stimulate cells in muscles to divide.

Question 58

Pituitary gland

Answer 58

Releases many hormones,located in the brain underneath the hypothalamus .releases growth hormones being FSH,LH,ACTH.

Question 59

What does FSH stand for?

Answer 59

Follicle stimulating hormone.

Question 60

What does LH stand for?

Answer 60

Luteinising hormone.

Question 61

Thyroid gland

Answer 61

Releases thyroxine.Located just below the throat.Responsible for controlling metabolism.

Question 62

Adrenal glands

Answer 62

Located on top of the kidney.Releases adrenaline.Responsible for ‘fight or flight’ mechanism with danger.

Question 63

Pancreas

Answer 63

The pancreas contains some cells that produce insulin and others that produce glucagon.

Question 64

The ovaries

Answer 64

The ovaries produce the sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone. Responsible for growth characteristics(puberty).

Question 65

The testes

Answer 65

The testes release the sex hormone testosterone.Responsible for growth characteristics(puberty).

Question 66

Endocrine glands?

Answer 66

The collective name for glands that release hormones into the blood.

Question 67

Advantages of fertility treatment

Answer 67

It allows people to have babies of their own, who otherwise can't due to a variety of reasons. It has a safe track record and has been used since 1978. The embryos can be screened for genetic diseases, which is important for families that already have an affected child. Only unaffected embryos are used. Unused eggs can be used for research or donated to other couples.

Question 68

Disadvantages of fertility treatments- IVF

Answer 68

There are side effects form the drugs used, such as hot flushes and severe headaches. There is a possibility of multiple births, which is dangerous for mother and babies. Ovarian hyper-stimulation syndrome (OHS), when too many eggs develop in the ovaries. It is very emotionally and physically stressful. The success rates are not high.

Question 69

vitro fertilisation IVF

Answer 69

Fertilisation in the laboratory outside the mothers body.In Latin ‘In vitro’literally means ‘in glass’

Question 70

Oral contraceptives

Answer 70

The pill contains female hormones, particularly Oestrogen (modern pills have less oestrogen and some progesterone). Oestrogen had a lot of side effects (High BP, headaches), hence the change of dosages.

Question 71

Fertility treatments

Answer 71

FSH can be used to treat infertility in a drug called Clomiphene. Some females lack enough of the hormone.

Question 72

Benefits and risks of contraception

Answer 72

Oral contraceptives are more than 99% effective if taken correctly and can reduce the risk of certain cancers. However, there are possible side effects, such as changes in weight, mood and blood pressure due to high levels of oestrogen. Modern pills contain much less oestrogen. Contraceptive injections, implants or skin patches contain slow release progesterone to inhibit the maturation and release of eggs.

Question 73

Non hormonal method of contraception.

Answer 73

Physical barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms, which prevent the sperm reaching an egg Benefits and risks Condoms are easy and quick to use, but sometimes they can tear or rip. Diaphragms need to be put in just before sex and left in several hours afterwards.

Question 74

Non hormonal method of contraception.

Answer 74

``` Intrauterine devices (IUD) also known as a coil, prevent the implantation of an embryo or release of a hormone. Benefits and risks are ``` IUDs need to be fitted by a health professional. IUD can remain in position for up to 10 years. However, there is a small risk of causing an ectopic pregnancy.

Question 75

Non hormonal method contraception.

Answer 75

Spermicidal agents which kill or disable sperm. Benefits and risks are : Spermicidal agents can be added to other physical barriers such as condoms, but some people can have allergic reactions to these.

Question 76

Non hormonal method of contraception.

Answer 76

Abstaining from intercourse when an egg may be in the oviduct Benefits and risks are: Abstaining can be used successfully, but if the timings are not accurate the chance of pregnancy is high.

Question 77

Non hormonal method of contraception.

Answer 77

Surgical methods of male and female sterilisation. An example is a vasectomy, where the sperm ducts are cut and tied. Benefits and risks are Surgical methods cannot be reversed, and is considered permanent.

Question 78

How if IVF carried out(controlling fertility with hormones)

Answer 78

(1) egg follicle maturation. Stimulated by hormones. (2) Egg cells released by many follicles and taken from ovary (2) sperm cells taken from the man (3) eggs and sperm combined to allow fertilisation. (4) One or two healthy embryos placed and uterus.

Question 79

Diabetes type [1]

Answer 79

Pancreas stops producing insulin. Injections of insulin required. Diet and exercise will also help.

Question 80

Diabetes type [2]

Answer 80

Cells become insulin resistant. Control with diet and exercise.injections not always as affective. Diet related.