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Stuff Flashcards

1
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

Cellular respiration is an exothermic reaction which occurs continuously in living cells to release energy for metabolic processes, including aerobic and anaerobic respiration

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2
Q

Aerobic?

A

Aerobic respiration is when energy is released from a reaction with oxygen.

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3
Q

Respiration?

A

Respiration is the process that the body uses to release energy from digested food (glucose)

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4
Q

What do our cells need for respiration?

A

All organisms respire in order to release energy to fuel their living processes. The respiration can be aerobic, which uses glucose and oxygen.

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5
Q

Where does the process of respiration occur?

A

The process of respiration occurs in the mitochondria of the cell. Energy is then released to aid in cellular processes.

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6
Q

Respiration is a chemical process that releases energy.

A

Jiddah

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7
Q

How do you calculate cardiac output?

A

The contraction and relaxation of muscles during each heartbeat is controlled by impulses from the nervous system.
The heart rate is the number of times the heart beats a minute. The strokevolume is the volume (litres) of blood is pushed into the aorta per beat.
Cardiac out it is the volume of blood pushed into the aorta per minute.
Regular exercise increases the strength of the muscle and ventricle size.
So fitter people often have bigger volumes,and their hearts can you be more slowly to achieve the same cardiac as a less fit person.

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8
Q

Cardiac output

A

Cardiac output=stroke volume X heart rate

Litres/min) (Litres/beat) (beats/min

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9
Q

What is the cardiac output of a heart that pumps 0.07 L of blood 55 times per minute?

A

0.07×55 = 3 .85 Liters/min

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10
Q

Calculate the stroke volume for cardiac output of 5 Litres/min and a heart rate of 50 beats/min

A

5/50=0.1 litres

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11
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

The contraction and relaxation of muscles during each heartbeat is controlled by impulses from the nervous system. The heart rate is the number of times the heart beats in a minute. The volume of blood pushed into the aorta in each beat is the stroke volume.It is measured in litres. The cardiac output is the volume of blood pushed into the aorta each minute, and can be calculated using the equation: cardiac output equals/volume times heart rate.

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12
Q

What is the aortas function in the heart?

A

It carries blood to the rest of the body.

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13
Q

What is the pulmonary artery function?

A

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the lungs. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

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14
Q

What does the superior vena cava do?

A

It brings blood from the upper body.

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15
Q

The left atrium:

A

The left-hand side of the heart collects oxygenated blood from the heart and pumps it round the body.

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16
Q

The right atrium:

A

The right atrium contracts and pushes the blood into the right ventricle which in turn contracts, pushing the blood out of the pulmonary artery to the lungs to become oxygenated.

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17
Q

The hearts right side:

A

The right side pumps blood through the pulmonary circuit (to the lungs), blood then returns to the left side which pumps blood through the systemic circuit (body).

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18
Q

Definition of the heart?

A

The heart is a muscular organ. Its function is to pump blood. The cardiac muscle of the heart contracts to pump the blood from the atria into the ventricles and from the ventricles into the arteries. The cardiac muscle of the heart requires energy from respiration to continue to contract, and is supplied with the glucose and oxygen required by coronary arteries.

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19
Q

Functions of the heart summary (1)

A

deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium, The atria relaxed, oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium.

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20
Q

Functions of the heart(2)

A

The right ventricle contracts, the pressure on the tricuspid valve pushes it close to prevent blood moving back into the right atrium. The left ventricle contracts, the pressure on the bicuspid valve pushes it close to prevent blood moving back into the left atrium.

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21
Q

Functions of the heart to summary(3)

A

The blood pressure is open the semilunar valve and moves into the pulmonary artery. The blood pressure is open the semilunar valve and moves into the aorta.

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22
Q

The heart has two separate pumps however generally…

A

The blood flows into one side of the heart from a vein, goes into an atrium, then a ventricle, and out through an artery.

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23
Q

The heart contains valves to prevent the blood flowing backwards:

A

The right side has tricuspid valve(a valve with three flaps)

The left side has a bicuspid valve(a valve with two flaps)

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24
Q

How does a heart attack occur?

A

A heart attack occurs when blood stops Flowing to muscles in part of the heart, damaging them and stopping the heart pumping properly. If the heart stops completely it can often be started again by putting an electric shock through it(using a defibrillator)

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25
Q

What do the tendons in a heart do?

A

The tendons stop valve is turning inside out.

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26
Q

The septums function

A

The septum completely separates the two sides of the heart.

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27
Q

What does the inferior vena cava do?

A

It brings blood from the lower body.

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28
Q

Circulatory System

A

In the circulatory System blood flows away from the heart into arteries. These divide into narrow capillaries, which form fine networks running through tissues, blood returns to the heart in veins.With each beat heart squirts blood into arteries under high-pressure. Artery walls are thick to withstand this sudden increase in pressure, but it makes them stretch. A wave of stretching then passes along the artery walls. You feel this way as a pulse. After stretching muscle and elastic fibres in artery walls cause arteries to contract again the stretching contracting of arteries makes blood flow more smoothly.Blood flows under low pressure in the veins and so they only need thin walls. As you move, muscles in your skeleton how to push blood along the veins. Veins contain valves to prevent blood flow in the wrong way.

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29
Q

What are arteries?

A

The blood pressure in arteries is higher than other blood vessels the pressure also varies as the heart contracts and relaxes, pushing pulses of blood into the arteries.

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30
Q

How is the structure of archery adapted to these pressures

A

Drdddd

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31
Q

What are veinns?

A

The blood pressure in the veins is lower than in other blood vessels. veins take blood back to the heart where it is pumped to the lungs to pick up new oxygen again.

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32
Q

What do the capillaries do?

A

Substances are exchange between blood and cells as the capillaries passed through tissues. Capillaries connect the smallest branches of arteries and veins. Walls of capillaries are just one cell thick. Capillaries allow the exchange of molecules between the blood and the body cells. Molecules can diffuse across their walls. This exchange of molecules is not possible across the walls of other types of blood vessel.

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33
Q

Exchange of molecules

A

Oxygen defuses through the capillary wall, into the tissue fluid, and the cells. Carbon dioxide defuses from the cells into the blood tissue fluid, then of course the capillary walls into the blood plasma.Glucose defuses from the blood plasma, across the capillary walls to the tissue fluid, and then to the cells. The waste products urea diffuses the cells of the liver, to the tissue fluid and across the capillary walls into the blood plasma.

34
Q

Controlling blood flow

A

In order to control blood flow through the vessels, the smooth muscles surrounding the arteries can construct which causes vasoconstriction or they can relax which causes vasodilation.

35
Q

Structure and function of blood vessels

A

Blood is transported in the arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood is pumped from the heart in the arteries. It is returned to the heart in the veins. The capillaries connect the two types of blood vessel and molecules are exchanged between the blood and the cells across their walls.

36
Q

Facts about arteries

A

Always carry blood away from the heart. Carry oxygenated blood, except for the pulmonary artery. Carry blood under high pressure. Have thick muscular and elastic walls to pump and accommodate blood. A type of supporting tissue called connective tissue provides strength. The channel in the blood vessel that carries blood the (Lumen) is narrow

37
Q

Facts about the veins

A

Always carry blood to the heart. Always carry deoxygenated blood, except for the pulmonary vein. Carry blood under low or negative pressure. Have thin walls-have less muscular tissue then arteries. Have less connective-tissue than arteries. Have a wide lumen.

38
Q

How do valves help blood flow In veins and muscles relax?

A

In your veins there are one-way valves that are placed about one inch apart that keep blood flowing in the right direction. When your leg muscles relax, the valves inside your veins. Close preventing the backward flow of blood down the legs.

39
Q

Why do we need blood?

A

To transport substances around the body,including oxygen and glucose to tissues,and removal of waste products,including carbon dioxide and urea.
Blood also has important roles regarding the immune response.

40
Q

How are the lungs adapted to their function of gas exchange?

A

The alveoli are adapted to make gas exchange in lungs happen easily and efficiently. … they give the lungs a really big surface area. they have moist, thin walls (just one cell thick) they have a lot of tiny blood vessels called capillaries.

41
Q

Were are cells suspended?

A

Cells are suspended in straw coloured liquid called plasma which carries dissolved substances around the body .

42
Q

Plasma function:

A

Transporting carbon dioxide, digested food molecules, urea and hormones; distributing heat.

43
Q

Red blood cells function:

A

Transporting oxygen required for aerobic respiration in body cells. Red blood cells have no nucleus - they lose it during their development - so they can pack in more haemoglobin. They are small and flexible so that they can fit through narrow blood capillaries.
They have a biconcave shape - they are the shape of a disc that is curved inwards on both sides - to maximise their surface area for oxygen absorption.
They are thin, so there is only a short distance for the oxygen to diffuse to reach the centre of the cell.

44
Q

White blood cells function:

A

There are several main types of white blood cell.

Phagocytes

About 70% of white blood cells are phagocytes. Phagocytes engulf and destroy unwanted microorganisms that enter the blood, by the process of phagocytosis. They are part of the body’s immune system.

Lymphocytes

LymphocyteLymphocyte
Lymphocytes make up about 25% of white blood cells. They are also part of the body’s immune system. Lymphocytes produce soluble proteins called antibodies when a foreign body such as a microorganism enters the body.

45
Q

Platelets function:

A

Platelets

Platelets are cell fragments produced by giant cells in the bone marrow.

Platelets stop bleeding in two main ways:

they have proteins on their surface that enable them to stick to breaks in a blood vessel and clump together
they secrete proteins that result in a series of chemical reactions that make blood clot, which plugs a wound

46
Q

Plasma function

A

which is a liquid that carries these cells. It also transports important nutrients.

47
Q

Simple definitions of red and white blood cells and palates and plasmas.

A

Blood transports materials around the body and protects against disease. It contains:

Red blood cells which transport oxygen.
White blood cells which protect against disease.
Blood platelets which help the blood to clot and repair a cut.
Plasma which is a liquid that carries these cells. It also transports important nutrients.

48
Q

Osmosis

A

Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules, from a region where the water molecules are in higher concentration, to a region where they are in lower concentration, through a partially permeable membrane.

49
Q

Diffusion definition

A

Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Diffusion happens in liquids and gases because their particles move randomly from place to place.

Diffusion is an important process for living things; it is how substances move in and out of cells.

50
Q

How is diffusion caused?

A

In gases and liquids, particles move randomly from place to place. The particles collide with each other or with their container. This makes them change direction. Eventually, the particles are spread through the whole container.

51
Q

Active transport definition:

A

Substances are transported passively down concentration gradients. Often, substances have to be moved from a low to a high concentration - against a concentration gradient.

Active transport is a process that is required to move molecules against a concentration gradient.The process requires energy.

52
Q

Active transport in plants

A

For plants to take up mineral ions, ions are moved into root hairs, where they are in a higher concentration than in the dilute solutions in the soil. Active transport then occurs across the root so that the plant takes in the ions it needs from the soil around it.

53
Q

Active transport in animals

A

In animals, glucose molecules have to be moved across the gut wall into the blood. The glucose molecules in the intestine might be in a higher concentration than in the intestinal cells and blood – for instance, after a sugary meal – but there will be times when glucose concentration in the intestine might be lower.

All the glucose in the gut needs to be absorbed. When the glucose concentration in the intestine is lower than in the intestinal cells, movement of glucose involves active transport. The process requires energy produced by respiration.

54
Q

What is Homeostasis?

A

The constant maintenance of internal conditions to maintain optimal conditions for cellular reactions.

55
Q

Glands:

A

A gland is an organ that contains cells which produce substances.An exocrine gland release what it produces on to a surface.often through a tube or duct.
E.g
-sweat glands
-The pancreas releasing digestive enzymes into the gut.

An endocrine gland releases hormones into the blood.

56
Q

What are hormones?

A

They are chemical messengers.They take time to get around the body.They are transported by the blood and carried to their target organ.

57
Q

What are target organs?

A

An organ that is affected by a particular hormone.
For example……
growth hormones stimulate cells in muscles to divide.

58
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Releases many hormones,located in the brain underneath the hypothalamus .releases growth hormones being FSH,LH,ACTH.

59
Q

What does FSH stand for?

A

Follicle stimulating hormone.

60
Q

What does LH stand for?

A

Luteinising hormone.

61
Q

Thyroid gland

A

Releases thyroxine.Located just below the throat.Responsible for controlling metabolism.

62
Q

Adrenal glands

A

Located on top of the kidney.Releases adrenaline.Responsible for ‘fight or flight’ mechanism with danger.

63
Q

Pancreas

A

The pancreas contains some cells that produce insulin and others that produce glucagon.

64
Q

The ovaries

A

The ovaries produce the sex hormones oestrogen and progesterone. Responsible for growth characteristics(puberty).

65
Q

The testes

A

The testes release the sex hormone testosterone.Responsible for growth characteristics(puberty).

66
Q

Endocrine glands?

A

The collective name for glands that release hormones into the blood.

67
Q

Advantages of fertility treatment

A

It allows people to have babies of their own, who otherwise can’t due to a variety of reasons.
It has a safe track record and has been used since 1978. The embryos can be screened for genetic diseases, which is important for families that already have an affected child. Only unaffected embryos are used.
Unused eggs can be used for research or donated to other couples.

68
Q

Disadvantages of fertility treatments- IVF

A

There are side effects form the drugs used, such as hot flushes and severe headaches.
There is a possibility of multiple births, which is dangerous for mother and babies.
Ovarian hyper-stimulation syndrome (OHS), when too many eggs develop in the ovaries.
It is very emotionally and physically stressful.
The success rates are not high.

69
Q

vitro fertilisation IVF

A

Fertilisation in the laboratory outside the mothers body.In Latin ‘In vitro’literally means ‘in glass’

70
Q

Oral contraceptives

A

The pill contains female hormones, particularly Oestrogen (modern pills have less oestrogen and some progesterone). Oestrogen had a lot of side effects (High BP, headaches), hence the change of dosages.

71
Q

Fertility treatments

A

FSH can be used to treat infertility in a drug called Clomiphene. Some females lack enough of the hormone.

72
Q

Benefits and risks of contraception

A

Oral contraceptives are more than 99% effective if taken correctly and can reduce the risk of certain cancers.

However, there are possible side effects, such as changes in weight, mood and blood pressure due to high levels of oestrogen. Modern pills contain much less oestrogen.

Contraceptive injections, implants or skin patches contain slow release progesterone to inhibit the maturation and release of eggs.

73
Q

Non hormonal method of contraception.

A

Physical barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms, which prevent the sperm reaching an egg

Benefits and risks

Condoms are easy and quick to use, but sometimes they can tear or rip.
Diaphragms need to be put in just before sex and left in several hours afterwards.

74
Q

Non hormonal method of contraception.

A 
Intrauterine devices (IUD) also known as a coil, prevent the implantation of an embryo or release of a hormone.
Benefits and risks are

IUDs need to be fitted by a health professional. IUD can remain in position for up to 10 years. However, there is a small risk of causing an ectopic pregnancy.

75
Q

Non hormonal method contraception.

A

Spermicidal agents which kill or disable sperm.
Benefits and risks are :

Spermicidal agents can be added to other physical barriers such as condoms, but some people can have allergic reactions to these.

76
Q

Non hormonal method of contraception.

A

Abstaining from intercourse when an egg may be in the oviduct
Benefits and risks are:

Abstaining can be used successfully, but if the timings are not accurate the chance of pregnancy is high.

77
Q

Non hormonal method of contraception.

A

Surgical methods of male and female sterilisation. An example is a vasectomy, where the sperm ducts are cut and tied.
Benefits and risks are

Surgical methods cannot be reversed, and is considered permanent.

78
Q

How if IVF carried out(controlling fertility with hormones)

A

(1) egg follicle maturation. Stimulated by hormones.
(2) Egg cells released by many follicles and taken from ovary
(2) sperm cells taken from the man
(3) eggs and sperm combined to allow fertilisation.
(4) One or two healthy embryos placed and uterus.

79
Q

Diabetes type [1]

A

Pancreas stops producing insulin. Injections of insulin required. Diet and exercise will also help.

80
Q

Diabetes type [2]

A

Cells become insulin resistant. Control with diet and exercise.injections not always as affective. Diet related.

Biology (8 decks)

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