Tectonic Processes and Hazards

Question 1

What was the death toll of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami?

Answer 1

Over 20,000 people.

Question 2

Why was the death toll of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami so high?

Answer 2

40-meter tsunami overwhelmed coastal defenses.

Question 3

How many people died in the 2010 Haiti earthquake?

Answer 3

Around 230,000 people.

Question 4

Why did the 2010 Haiti earthquake result in such a high death toll?

Answer 4

Poorly constructed buildings collapsed easily.

Question 5

How many relief workers were deployed after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China?

Answer 5

130,000 people.

Question 6

Why was the response to the 2008 Sichuan earthquake so large?

Answer 6

Magnitude 7.9 required massive aid.

Question 7

What was the estimated death toll from the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami?

Answer 7

Around 230,000 people.

Question 8

Why did the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami cause such widespread destruction?

Answer 8

Waves traveled 800 km/h across countries.

Question 9

How many people died in the 2011 Christchurch earthquake in New Zealand?

Answer 9

185 people.

Question 10

Why was the 2011 Christchurch earthquake so deadly?

Answer 10

Shallow depth caused severe shaking.

Question 11

What was the death toll of the 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan?

Answer 11

6,434 people.

Question 12

Why did the 1995 Kobe earthquake cause such a high death toll?

Answer 12

Magnitude 7.2 caused widespread collapse.

Question 13

How many people died in the 2010 Mount Merapi eruption in Indonesia?

Answer 13

353 people.

Question 14

Why did the 2010 Mount Merapi eruption cause significant fatalities?

Answer 14

Pyroclastic flows moved at 100 km/h.

Question 15

How many people were evacuated before the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines?

Answer 15

200,000 people.

Question 16

Why was the evacuation before the 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption so successful?

Answer 16

Early warning helped avoid casualties.

Question 17

What was the population affected by the 1995 Montserrat volcanic eruption?

Answer 17

Two-thirds of the population evacuated.

Question 18

Why did two-thirds of Montserrat’s population evacuate during the 1995 volcanic eruption?

Answer 18

Intense eruptions prompted large-scale evacuation.

Question 19

How much seawater was used to cool lava during the 1973 Eldfell eruption in Iceland?

Answer 19

6.8 billion litres.

Question 20

Why was 6.8 billion litres of seawater pumped during the 1973 Eldfell eruption in Iceland?

Answer 20

To cool lava and protect infrastructure.

Question 21

What is the estimated economic loss expected from a future major earthquake in San Francisco?

Answer 21

$200 billion.

Question 22

Why would a future major earthquake in San Francisco result in $200 billion in economic losses?

Answer 22

High property values, dense population.

Question 23

How many countries are covered by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC)?

Answer 23

28 countries.

Question 24

Why does the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center cover 28 countries?

Answer 24

Tsunami threats affect many coastal nations.

Question 25

How many people died in the 2015 Afghanistan earthquake?

Answer 25

Around 400 people.

Question 26

Why was the death toll in the 2015 Afghanistan earthquake relatively low?

Answer 26

Sparse population limited fatalities.

Question 27

How many people died in the 2003 Bam earthquake in Iran?

Answer 27

Over 26,000 people.

Question 28

Why did the 2003 Bam earthquake result in such a high death toll?

Answer 28

Collapsing buildings caused mass casualties.

Question 29

How many people died in the 1999 North Anatolian Fault earthquake in Turkey?

Answer 29

Around 17,000 people.

Question 30

Why was the 1999 North Anatolian Fault earthquake so deadly?

Answer 30

Magnitude 7.6 caused widespread destruction.

Question 31

How many volcanic explosions occur annually at Sakurajima in Japan?

Answer 31

Up to 1,000 explosions.

Question 32

Why does Sakurajima experience up to 1,000 volcanic explosions annually?

Answer 32

Continuous volcanic activity, frequent eruptions.

Question 33

How many people died in the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines?

Answer 33

Around 800 people.

Question 34

Why was the death toll from the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo relatively low?

Answer 34

Successful evacuation minimized fatalities.

Question 35

How many people died in the 1992 Mount Etna eruption in Italy despite the use of lava diversion techniques?

Answer 35

Zero casualties.

Question 36

Why were there no casualties during the 1992 Mount Etna eruption?

Answer 36

Lava diversion techniques redirected flows.

Question 37

What are mega-disasters?

Answer 37

Large-scale disasters by areal extent.

Question 38

What else defines mega-disasters?

Answer 38

Economic or human impact.

Question 39

How does tectonic setting influence hazards?

Answer 39

Affects magnitude, frequency, and type.

Question 40

Where do 90% of tsunamis occur?

Answer 40

90% in the Pacific Ocean.

Question 41

How does the Pacific affect vulnerability?

Answer 41

Increases regional vulnerability.

Question 42

What is the result of destructive (convergent) margins?

Answer 42

More explosive volcanic activity.

Question 43

Why is volcanic activity more explosive at destructive margins?

Answer 43

Andesitic lava with higher gas content.

Question 44

What happens at constructive margins?

Answer 44

Less explosive basaltic eruptions.

Question 45

How do hotspots affect eruptions?

Answer 45

Produce less explosive basaltic eruptions. ## Footnote Example: Hawaii.

Question 46

Why are island arcs more hazardous?

Answer 46

Water-bearing sediments increase volatiles.

Question 47

Give an example of a hazardous island arc.

Answer 47

Montserrat.

Question 48

What are the types of volcanic hazards?

Answer 48

Lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash falls.

Question 49

What other volcanic hazards exist?

Answer 49

Gas eruptions, lahars, jökulhlaups.

Question 50

What factors are considered in hazard profiles?

Answer 50

Magnitude, speed of onset, areal extent.

Question 51

What else is considered in hazard profiles?

Answer 51

Duration, frequency, spatial predictability.

Question 52

How do shallow-angle faults affect hazard impact?

Answer 52

Affect larger areas, amplify impacts.

Question 53

Give an example of a shallow-angle fault.

Answer 53

Afghanistan 2015.

Question 54

What are blind faults?

Answer 54

Faults with unpredictable behavior.

Question 55

Give an example of a blind fault.

Answer 55

Kobe 1995.

Question 56

How does governance affect vulnerability?

Answer 56

Through monitoring, education, mitigation strategies.

Question 57

What does strong governance improve?

Answer 57

Disaster response and recovery.

Question 58

What does weak governance reduce?

Answer 58

Effectiveness of building codes, planning.

Question 59

What limits governance in some areas?

Answer 59

Affordability and budget constraints.

Question 60

Where can weak governance occur?

Answer 60

In both developed and developing countries.

Question 61

What is the hazard management cycle?

Answer 61

Response, recovery, mitigation, preparedness.

Question 62

Who influences hazard management?

Answer 62

Both government and community-led strategies.

Question 63

What limits long-term hazard management?

Answer 63

Affordability of measures like aseismic buildings.

Question 64

Can earthquakes be predicted?

Answer 64

Earthquakes can be predicted spatially.

Question 65

How are tsunamis detected?

Answer 65

After earthquakes, warnings are issued. ## Footnote Example: PTWC, 2009 Pacific tsunami.

Question 66

What limits prediction accuracy?

Answer 66

Extreme events may overwhelm predictions. ## Footnote Example: Tohoku 2011 tsunami.

Question 67

What do scientists study for earthquake prediction?

Answer 67

Stress accumulation on faults.

Question 68

Give an example of a studied fault.

Answer 68

North Anatolian Fault.

Question 69

Are volcanic locations well-known?

Answer 69

Yes, volcanic locations are generally well-known.

Question 70

How does monitoring equipment help manage volcanoes?

Answer 70

Portable equipment improves management potential.

Question 71

What happens if prediction strategies fail?

Answer 71

Magnitude may exceed expectations, defenses inadequate.

Question 72

What affects social vulnerability?

Answer 72

Population density, isolation, urbanization.

Question 73

What other factors affect vulnerability?

Answer 73

Inequality of access to housing. Access to education, healthcare, income.

Question 74

How does high population density affect vulnerability?

Answer 74

Amplifies even low-magnitude impacts.

Question 75

How does remoteness affect hazard response?

Answer 75

Remote areas are harder to reach.

Question 76

Why are poor communities more vulnerable?

Answer 76

Lack of resources to evacuate.

Question 77

How does inequality affect resilience?

Answer 77

Influences access to mitigation tools.

Question 78

How does urban infrastructure affect vulnerability?

Answer 78

Affects exposure and recovery time.

Question 79

What strategies modify tectonic events?

Answer 79

Land-use zoning, hazard-resistant design. Engineering defenses, lava diversion.

Question 80

What strategies modify vulnerability and resilience?

Answer 80

Monitoring, prediction, education. Community preparedness.

Question 81

How can loss from disasters be modified?

Answer 81

Emergency aid, recovery aid. Insurance, community-led recovery.

Question 82

Which volcanic hazards are manageable?

Answer 82

Lava flows (e.g., Eldfell 1973). Lava flows (e.g., Mt. Etna 1992).

Question 83

Which volcanic hazards are hard to manage?

Answer 83

Pyroclastic flows, blast waves.

Question 84

What affects the effectiveness of hazard management?

Answer 84

Hazard type, frequency, tectonic setting.

Question 85

How does development level affect hazard management?

Answer 85

Influences access to mitigation tools. ## Footnote Example: Zoning, shelters in Japan.

Question 86

How do developed areas compare?

Answer 86

They have stronger monitoring systems. Better education and insurance.

Question 87

How does community resilience reduce vulnerability?

Answer 87

Better healthcare, housing, and income.

Question 88

How do frequent events improve responses?

Answer 88

Areas with frequent events develop better responses. ## Footnote Example: Merapi as Decade Volcano.

Question 89

How is hazard management effectiveness measured?

Answer 89

By death and injury counts. Economic losses, recovery speed.

Question 90

How are high-magnitude events managed?

Answer 90

Harder to manage even in developed nations. ## Footnote Example: Japan 2011.

Question 91

Can smaller events cause major damage?

Answer 91

Yes, in vulnerable, unprepared regions. ## Footnote Example: Haiti 2010.

Question 92

How does development affect hazard management?

Answer 92

Affects preparation, response, and reconstruction.