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Test 3 Material Flashcards

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1
Q

Circulatory System

A
  1. Cardiovascular System
  2. Lymphatic System
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2
Q

Cardiovascular System (Functions)

A
  1. Transportation
  2. Immunity & Protection
  3. Regulation
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3
Q

Cardiovascular (Transportation)

A

-Nutrients & Wastes
-Hormones

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4
Q

Cardiovascular (Immunity & Protection)

A

-Clotting
-Disease/infection

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5
Q

Cardiovascular (Regulation)

A

-PH
-Body Temp
-Fluid Levels

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6
Q

Cardiovascular System (Structures)

A
  1. Heart
  2. Blood Vessels
  3. Blood
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7
Q

Heart

A

-Roughly the size of your closed fist
-Sits almost in the middle of the chest in the mediastinum
-2/3rds of its mass is on the left attached to the diaphragm inferiorly
-Inferior portion is the apex
-Superior portion is the base

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8
Q

Heart (Functions)

A

Pump, adaptation to changes, homeostasis

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9
Q

Mediastinum

A

A mass of organs and tissues that separates the lungs

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10
Q

Mediastinum (Boundaries)

A

-Superiorly: First Rib
-Inferiorly: Diaphragm
-Anteriorly: Sternum (breastbone)
-Posteriorly: Vertebral Column (spine)

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11
Q

Mediastinum (Contains)

A

-Heart & it’s large vessels
-Trachea
-Esophagus
-Thymus & Lymph Nodes
-Connective Tissue

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12
Q

Pericardium

A

A 2 layered CT membrane that surrounds and protects the heart

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13
Q

What are the 2 layers of the Pericardium?

A
  1. Fibrous Pericardium
  2. Serous Pericardium
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14
Q

Fibrous Pericardium

A

-Most superficial
-Tough, inelastic, dense irregular CT
-Attaches to the diaphragm inferiorly, to the CT of the blood vessels superiorly
-It holds the heart in the mediastinum and allows for movement

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15
Q

Serous Pericardium

A

-Thinner, deep to the fibrous
-Forms a double layer around the heart (Parietal & Visceral layer)

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16
Q

Serous Pericardium (Outer Layer)

A

Parietal layer of the serous pericardium
-Fused to the fibrous pericardium

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17
Q

Serous Pericardium (Inner Layer)

A

Visceral Layer of the pericardium
-a.k.a. epicardium
-Attached to the heart muscle

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18
Q

What is another name for the visceral (inner layer) of the Serous Pericardium?

A

Epicardium

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19
Q

Parietal Cavity

A

-Space between the parietal and visceral layers of the pericardium
-Filled with pericardial fluid (thin layer of fluid to reduce friction)

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20
Q

What are the 3 Layers of the Heart Wall?

A
  1. Epicardium
  2. Myocardium
  3. Endocardium
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21
Q

Epicardium

A

-a.k.a visceral layer of the serous pericardium
-Simple squamous epithelium and CT
-Gives the outer surface of a smooth, slippery texture

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22
Q

Myocardium

A

-Cardiac muscle tissue
-Site of contraction

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23
Q

Endocardium

A

-Endothelium overlying a thin layer of CT
-Endothelium: Layer of simple squamous epithelium that lines the cavities of the heart, blood, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
-Provides smooth lining for the chambers and valves of the heart

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24
Q

Endothelium

A

Layer of simple squamous epithelium that lines the cavities of the heart, blood, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels

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25
Endocardium is made of of _________________ and __________.
Endothelium Cells, CT
26
How many heart chambers are there?
4
27
Heart Chambers
4 Heart Chambers -2 Atria -2 Ventricles
28
Atria
-2 superior chambers -Receive blood from blood vessels (veins) returning to the heart
29
Ventricles
-2 inferior chambers -Receive blood from the atria and eject it out into blood vessels (arteries)
30
Septa
-A dividing wall -Interatrial Septum: divides the 2 atria -Interventricular Septum: divides the 2 ventricles
31
Interatrial Septum
Divides the 2 atria
32
Interventricular Septum
Divides the 2 ventricles
33
Veins
Carry blood to the heart
34
Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart
35
Right Atrium
Receives blood from 3 veins -Superior Vena Cava -Inferior vena Cava -Coronary Sinus Blood passes from the right atrium through the right atrioventricular (AV) valve (a.k.a. tricuspid valve) into the right ventricle
36
What 3 veins does the right atrium receive blood from?
-Superior Vena Cava -Inferior vena Cava -Coronary Sinus
37
Blood passes from the right atrium through the _________________________ into the right ventricle
right atrioventricular (AV) valve (a.k.a. tricuspid valve)
38
Right Ventricle
-Receives blood from the right atrium -The cusps of the right A-V valve are connected to the tendon-like cords called chordae tendineae -Chordae tendineae are anchored to the ventricular wall by papillary muscles -Blood is ejected by the right ventricle through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk -The pulmonary trunk divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries
39
Left Atrium
-Receives blood from the pulmonary veins -Blood passes from the left atrium through the left atrioventricular (AV) valve (a.k.a. bicuspid valve, mitral valve) into the left ventricle
40
Left Ventricle
-Thickest chamber of the heart -Receives blood from the left atrium -The cusps of the left A-V valve are connected to the tendon-like cords called chordae tendineae -Chordae tendineae are anchored to the ventricular wall by papillary muscles -Blood is ejected by the left ventricle through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta -Some of the blood in the aorta flows into the coronary arteries which supply the heart with oxygen-rich blood
41
Heart Valves
-Atrioventricular (a.k.a. tricuspid & bicuspid/mitral) Valves -Pulmonary & Aortic Semilunar Valves
42
Atrioventricular (a.k.a. tricuspid & bicuspid/mitral) Valves
-When blood flows into the atria, it increases pressure in the atria -The pressure opens the AV valves allowing blood to flow into the ventricles -When the ventricles contract, the increased pressure forces the AV valves closed -The papillary muscles contract to prevent the valves from being forced open in the opposite direction
43
Pulmonary & Aortic Semilunar Valves
-When the ventricles contract, they increase pressure in the ventricles -This pressure closes the AV valves and opens the pulmonary and aortic valves -Blood is ejected into the arteries (pulmonary and aorta) -When the Ventricles relax, blood in these arteries starts to flow back toward the heart -This fills the cusps of the semilunar valves and they close
44
Heart Sounds
-'Lub-Dub' -'Lub': The sound made by the blood turbulence associated with the closing of the AV -'Dub': The sound made by the blood turbulence associated with the closing of the semilunar valves
45
'Lub' (Heart Sound)
The sound made by the blood turbulence associated with the closing of the AV
46
'Dub' (Heart Sound)
The sound made by the blood turbulence associated with the closing of the semilunar valves
47
Pulmonary Circulation
-Function of the right side of the heart -Deoxygenated blood returns from body tissues and enters the right atrium -Gets pumped into the right ventricle which ejects the blood into the pulmonary arteries -These blood vessels take the deoxygenated blood to the lungs to clear the CO2 and pick up the O2 -The blood (now oxygenated) returns from the lungs via pulmonary veins and enters the left atrium
48
Systemic Circulation
-Function of the left side of the heart -Oxygenated blood returns from the lungs and enters the left atrium -Blood is pumped into the left ventricle which ejects the blood into the aorta and out to body tissues -Tissues use the O2 and release CO2 which eventually makes its way back to the right atrium (now deoxygenated)
49
Coronary Circulation
-The heart needs its own circulation - the coronary circulation -Coronary arteries branch off from the aorta and encircle the heart -The heart gets its blood supply between beats
50
The Conduction System of the Heart
-Specialized cardiac muscle cells generate their own AP's - they are called autorhythmic fibres because they are self-excitable -They form structures that set the rhythm of the APs that cause contraction and they form a conduction system -The conduction system is the pathway along which the APs progress through the heart -The APs propagete through this conduction system in a specific sequence
51
APs propagete through conduction system in a specific sequence
1. SA node 2. Atria 3. AV node 4. Bundle of His 5. Bundle branches 6. Purkinje fibres 7. Ventricles
52
SA (Sinoatrial) Node
-In right atrial wall -It repeatedly generates APs which propagate through the atria via gap junctions causing atrial contraction and ejection of blood into the ventricles -The APs travel throughout the atria and reach the AV node
53
The AV (Atrioventricular) Node
-From the AV node, the APs enter the bundle of His (a.k.a. atrioventricular bundle) -The APs conduct along the right and left bundle branches which extend along the interventricular septum to the apex of the heart -Purkinje fibres very quickly conduct the APs upward through the ventricles causing ventricular contraction and ejection of blood into the arteries
54
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
-As the APs move through the heart, they can be detected on the surface of the body -Problems can be identified based on the shape and timing of the tracing
55
The Cardiac Cycle
-All of the events associated with one heart beat -Systole: contraction phase -Diastole: relaxation phase -In each cycle, the atria and ventricles alternately contract pushing blood through the chambers of the heart and out of the heart
56
Systole
Contraction Phase
56
Diastole
Relaxation Phase
57
Cardiac Output
-The amount of blood the heart ejects each minute -Different factors factors will affect HR and SV - there are limits as to how low they can go
58
Heart Rate (HR)
Number of times the heart beats in 1 min
59
Stroke Volume (SV)
Amount of blood ejected from each ventricle with each beat
60
How to calculate Cardiac Output (CO)
Heart Rate x Stroke Volume
61
Average HR
72 bpm
62
Average SV
70ml
63
Average CO
5L/min
64
Factors affecting Heart Rate
Heart rate must adjust to meet blood flow demands
65
Factors that regulate HR
1. ANS 2. Hormones/Ions 3. Other
66
ANS
-The control center in the medula oblangata gets input from sensory receptors and high brain centres (e.g. limbic system and cerebral cortex) -Based on input, the control centre increases or decreases the frequency of APs in the SyNS and the PaNS
67
Increased SyNS
Increased HR
68
Increased PaNS
Decrease HR
69
Hormones/Ions
-Epinephrine/norepinephrine: increase HR & contractility -Thyroid hormones: increase HR and contractility -Sodium & potassium: needed for normal APs - elevated blood levels decrease HR -Elevated levels of calcium: increase HR & contractility
70
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
Increase HR & contractility
71
Thyroid Hormones
Increase HR and contractility
72
Sodium & Potassium
needed for normal APs - elevated blood levels decrease HR
73
Elevated Levels of Calcium
Increase HR & Contractility
74
Other Factors
-Age -Sex -Fitness Level -Body Temp
75
What are the 3 factors that maintain equal stroke volume?
1. Preload 2. Contractility 3. Afterload
76
Factors Affecting Stroke Volume
-The left and right ventricles need to eject the same volume of blood -3 Factors help to maintain equal stroke volume 1. Preload 2. Contractility 3. Afterload
77
Frank-Starling Law
Greater Stretch = Stronger Contraction
78
EDV is affected by?
-Duration of ventricular diastole -Venous return
79
Preload
-Degree of stretch on the heart before it contracts -Greater Stretch = Stronger Contraction (Frank-Starling Law) -Amount of stretch is proportional to the volume of blood that fills the ventricles at the end of diastole (end diastolic volume or EDV) -EDV is affected by: 1. Duration of ventricular diastole 2. Venous return -There are limits
80
Contractility
-Strength of contraction at any given preload -Factors that increase contraction strength: 1. SyNS activation 2. Hormones (adrenaline/epinephrine) 3. Medications (e.g. digitalis) -Factors that decrease contraction strength: 1. Decreased SyNS activation 2. Chemical imbalances 3. Medications (e.g. Calcium Channel Blockers)
81
Factors that increase contraction strength?
1. SyNS activation 2. Hormones (adrenaline/epinephrine) 3. Medications (e.g. digitalis)
82
Factors that decrease contraction strength?
1. Decreased SyNS activation 2. Chemical imbalances 3. Medications (e.g. Calcium Channel Blockers)
83
Afterload
-Ejection of blood from the heart begins when ventricular pressure > vessel pressure (pulmonary trunk or aorta) -When the pressure is greater in the ventricles than in the vessels, the semilunar valve can open is the afterload -Factors that increase the afterload: 1. Hypertension (high blood pressure) 2. Narrowing of arteries by atherosclerosis
84
The pressure that must overcome before a semilunar valve can open is the ___________________.
Afterload
85
Factors that increase afterload?
-Hypertension (high blood pressure) -Narrowing of arteries by atherosclerosis
86
Arterioles
Resistance Vessels
87
Blood Vessels
1. Arterial System 2. Venous System
88
Arterial System
-Arteries carry blood away from the heart -Large elastic arteries divide into medium-sized muscular arteries which branch out into the different regions of the body -Muscular arteries divide into smaller arteries which divide into smaller arterioles (a.k.a resistance vessels) -As arterioles enter the tissue, they divide/branch out into capillaries (a.k.a. the exchange vessels) -Capillaries exchange substances (gases, nutrients) between the blood and the tissues
89
Arteries carry blood ______________________.
Away from the heart
90
Veins carry blood ____________________.
To the heart
91
Venous System
-Carry blood to the heart -Capillaries within tissues 'reunite' to form venules -Venules merge to form progressively larger veins -Veins merge into the Vena Cavae
92
Blood Vessel Walls
-BVs (except capillaries) have the same 3-layered arrangement surrounding the lumen 1. Tunica Intima 2. Tunica Media 3. Tunica Externa
93
Tunica Intima
-Inner layer -Simple squamous epithelium (called endothelium) and a CT basement membrane
94
Tunica Media
-Middle layer -Contains elastic fibres and smooth muscle
95
Tunica Externa
-a.k.a. Tunica Adventitia -Outer layer -Contains elastic and collagen fibres -Supports BVs and anchors them to surrounding structures
96
Vasoconstriction
Decrease in lumen size
97
Vasodilation
Increase in lumen size
98
Arteries
-Stretch to accommodate blood flow (especially under pressure (i.e. when ventricles contract)) -Recoil which helps force the blood forward
99
Arterioles
-Blood flow regulation -Have substantial ability to constrict or dilate the vessel -Therefore have significant affect on blood pressure
100
Capillaries
-Microcirculation -Found near almost every cell in the body -Walls are a single layer of endothelium and a basement membrane -Nutrient and waste exchange
101
Venules
-Blood flow from capillaries to veins
102
Veins
-Little smooth muscle and less elastic CT -Not designed to withstand high pressure -Need help moving blood -Have one-way valves to prevent backflow -Transport blood to the heart (venous return)
103
Blood
-Fluid (55%) and Cells (45%) -38 deg C, pH 7.4 -Male blood volume: 5-6L, female blood volume: 4-5L
104
Blood (Functions)
-Transportation (nutrients, wastes, heat, hormones) -Regulation (pH, body temp, fluid levels) -Protection (vs blood loss, foreign invaders)
105
Blood Components
-Plasma -Plasma Proteins -Blood Cells -Erythrocytes (a.k.a. RBC's) -Leukocytes (a.k.a. WBC's)
106
Erythrocytes are also referred to as?
Red Blood Cells
107
Leukocytes are also referred to as?
White Blood Cells
108
Plasma
-Fluid matrix of blood -Contains dissolved substances (including nutrients, wastes, hormones)
109
Plasma Proteins
-Albumin -Globulins -Fibrinogen
110
Albumin
Transport Protein
111
Globulins
Some are transport proteins, some are involved in the immune response
112
Fibrinogen
Essential in blood clotting
113
Blood Cells
-Red Blood Cells (RBC's) (a.k.a. erythrocytes) -White Blood Cells (WBC's) (a.k.a. Leukocytes) -Platelets (a.k.a. thrombocytes)
114
Erythrocytes
a.k.a. RBC's Contain hemoglobin -Oxygen carrying protein -Pigment that gives blood red colour -Live for 120 days Hemopoiesis: formation of RBC's Hematocrit: % of blood volume occupied by RBC's Anemia: Lower than normal hematocrit Polycythemia: Higher than normal hematocrit
115
Hemoglobin
-Oxygen carrying protein -Pigment that gives blood red colour
116
Hemopoiesis
formation of RBC's
117
Hematocrit
% of blood volume occupied by RBC's
118
Anemia
Lower than normal hematocrit
119
Polycythemia
Higher than normal hematocrit
120
Leukocytes (functions)
-Fight off foreign invaders -Phagocytosis -Immune responses
121
Leukocytes (Types)
-Granular -Agranular
122
Granular
-Neutrophils (a.k.a. polymorphonuclears) -Eosinophils -Basophils
123
Neutrophils
a.k.a. polymorphonuclears Most common, function in phagocytosis (esp. bacteria)
124
Eosinophils
Function in allergic reactions, parasitic infections
125
Basophils
Function in stress and allergic responses
126
Agranular
-Lymphocytes -Monocytes
127
Lymphocytes
1. B Lymphocytes 2. T Lymphocytes 3. Natural Killer Cells
128
Leukocytosis
Increased WBC Count
129
Leukopenia
Decreased WBC Count
130
Platelets
-Helps stop bleeding/contain substances to promote clotting -Live 5-9 days
131
Blood Pressure
-Blood flows from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure -Ventricular contraction generates blood pressure (the pressure on the walls of the blood vessel) -Pressure falls progressively with distance from the left ventricle
132
Systolic BP
Highest arterial pressure during ventricular systole
133
Diastolic BP
Lowest arterial pressure during ventricular diastole
134
Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)
Average blood pressure in the arteries
135
Blood pressure is affected by?
-Cardiac Output -Blood Volume -Vascular Resistance
136
Increased Cardiac Output (CO) =
Increased CO = Increased MAP
137
Significant increase in Blood Volume =
Significant increase in blood volume = increase in BP
138
Vascular resistance
-Lumen size (decrease lumen size = increase in BP) -Blood Viscosity (Increased viscosity = Increased BP) -Total vessel length (Increased vessel length = increased BP)
139
Lymphatic System (functions)
-Drainage of excess interstitial fluid -Transportation of lipids (from the digestive system) -Protection/immune responses
140
Lymphatic System (Structures)
-Lymph (fluid of the system) -Lymphatic vessels -Structure and organs that contain lymph tissue -Red bone marrow (where various blood cells develop)
141
Lymph
-Plasma and solutes filter freely from blood capillaries into interstitial space -Some is re-absorbed into the blood -excess filtered fluid drains into lymphatic system (capillaries) -The few proteins that leak out of the blood capillaries must return to circulation via the lymphatics
142
Lymphatic Flow
Capillaries -> Lymphatic Vessels -> Trunks -> Ducts
143
Lymphatic Capillaries
-Begin in the spaces between cells -Closed at one end -High Permeability -Cells forming the endothelium overlap to allow fluid in but not back out -Pressure drives interstitial fluid into the capillaries
144
Lymphatic Vessels
-Capillaries merge into larger vessels (lymphatic vessels) -Lots of one-way valves -at regular intervals, lymph passes through lymph nodes
145
Lymph Nodes
-Clusters of Lymphocytes (B cells and T cells) surrounded by a dense CT capsule -Bean shaped - ~600 nodes located along the lymphatic vessels of the body (often in groups, superficial and deep)
146
Lymph Nodes (Function)
Lymph Filtration (Lymph flows in, foreign substances are tapped and destroyed)
147
Lymphatic Trunks
Larger Lymphatic vessels merge into trunks
148
Lymphatic Ducts
1. Thoracic Duct 2. Right Thoratic Duct
149
Right Lymphatic Ducts
Drains the: -Right side of the head and neck -Right side of the chest -Drains into RIGHT SUBCLAVIAN VEIN
150
Thoracic Duct
Drains the: -Left side of the head and neck -Left side of the chest -Entire body below the ribs -drains into LEFT SUBCLAVIAN VEIN
151
Lymphatic Flow (Sequence in order)
-Lymphatic Flow -Blood Capillaries (blood) -Interstitial Spaces (interstitial fluid) -Lymphatic Capillaries (Lymph) -Lymphatic Vessels (Lymph) -Lymphatic Ducts (Lymph) -Subclavian Veins (Lymph)
152
Lymphatic flow is maintained by?
1. Skeletal muscle pump 2. Diaphragmatic breathing/respiratory pump 3. Smooth muscle contraction (in vessel walls - minimal contribution)
153
Lymphatic Organs
-Red Marrow -Thymus -Spleen
154
Red Marrow
-Produces B cells and immature T cells (a.k.a. pre-T cells)
155
Thymus
-Located in the mediastinum -Produces mature T cells from pre-T cells -Large at birth, significantly atrophied by maturity
156
Spleen
-Large mass of lymphatic tissue between the stomach an the diaphragm -Filters blood (similar to the process in a lymph node) -Removes ruptured, worn out, defective RBC's -Store platelets and monocytes
157
Immune System (non-specific defenses)
-Rapid responses -Don't recognize specific invaders but react in the same way to all invaders -No memory component
158
Non-specific Defences (first line)
-Skin -Mucous Membranes -Body Fluids -Sweat -Tears -Saliva -Urine -Gastric Juice -Defecation -Vomiting
159
Skin
Tightly Packed Keratinized Cells
160
Mucous Membranes
Mucous traps microbes, cilia sweeps them out
161
Sweat
Flushes the skin
162
Tears
Wash the eye
163
Saliva
Washes the teeth and mucous membranes
164
Urine
Regular flow reduces microbial growth
165
Gastric Juice
Stomach acid destroys many bacteria
166
Defecation
Removes microbes
167
Vomiting
Removes microbes
168
Non-specific Defences (second line)
-Antimicrobial Proteins -Natural Killer (NK) Cells -Phagocytes -Inflammation -Fever
169
Antimicrobial Proteins
Discourage microbial growth
170
Natural Killer (NK) Cells
Recognizes and kills microbes
171
Phagocytes (fixed and wandering)
Eat Microbes
172
Inflammation
Non-specific response to tissue damage designed to remove microbes etc., prevent their spread, and prepare the site for repair
173
Fever
Intensifies antimicrobial protein activity, inhibits microbial growth, speeds up repair
174
Specific Defences
a.k.a. Immunity -Antigen -Cell-mediated immune responses -Antibody-mediated immune responses
175
Antigen
Substances that are recognized as foreign and elicit an immune response
176
In specific responses, antigen/invaders are...
-Identified -Killed -Remembered -Specific responses are slower (than non-specific)
177
What are the 2 types of antigen/invaders?
1. Cell-Mediated 2. Antibody-mediated
178
Cell-Mediated Immune Responses
-Effective against fungi, parasites, viruses, some cancer cells, foreign tissue
179
During Cell-Mediated Immune Responses, when invader is recognized, T-Cells:
1. Activate 2. Enlarge 3. Proliferate 4. Differentiate (into:) - Helper T Cells (trigger proliferation, perform other immune functions) -Cytotoxic T Cells: Migrate to the site and destroy the invader -Memory T Cells: Remain after the response, they don't attack but with future infections (same invader), they make for a faster stronger response
180
Helper T Cells
Trigger proliferation, perform other immune functions
181
Cytotoxic T Cells
Migrate to the site and destroy the invader
182
Memory T Cells
Remain after the response, they don't attack but with future infections (same invader), they make for a faster stronger response
183
Antibody-Mediated Immune Responses
-Effective against antigens in body fluids, extracellular pathogens (e.g. bacteria)
184
During Antibody-Mediated Immune Responses, when invader is recognized B-Cells:
1. Activate 2. Enlarge 3. Differentiate (into:) -Plasma cells which secrete antibodies -Memory B Cells: Remain after after the response, they don't attack but with future infections (same invader), they make for a faster and stronger response
185
Antibodies
a.k.a. immunoglobulins -Proteins produced by plasma cells in response to an antigen -They neutralize, inhibit, or destroy the antigen
186
What are the 5 classes of antibodies?
-IgG -Iga -IgM -IgE -IgD
187
IgG
-Most common -In blood/lymph/intestines -Protect against bacteria viruses -They cross the placenta to confer immunity to the newborn
188
IgA
-Found in sweat/tears/saliva/mucous/breast milk/GI -Levels decrease during stress
189
IgM
-Found in blood/lymph -Part of blood transfusion reactions
190
IgE
-Found in blood -Involved in allergic/hypersensitivity reactions, protects against parasitic worms
191
IgD
-Found in blood -Help activate B cells
192
Exercise and the Immune System
-Effect of exercise on the immune system seems to be dependent on the type and intensity of the exercise -More research has been conducted on endurance exercise than on resistance training -In general, exercise generates a positive adaptation in immune system function -Post-exercise massage seems to have a positive effect, both physiologically and psychologically
193
Aging and the Immune System
-Increased susceptibility to infections and malignancies -Responses to vaccines is decreased -More antibodies are produced -Lower level of immune function -T-Cells and B-Cells are less responsive

Physiology (6 decks)

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