Additional Material Testable on Final Flashcards

Question

Nephron

Answer 1

Functional unit of kidney

Answer 2

-Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) -Loop of Henle (nephron loop) -Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

Answer 3

-Blood enters kidney (renal artery) & branches into smaller and smaller vessels -Afferent arteriole leads into glomerulus -Glomerulus: A tangled ball-like network of capillaries (pl. glomeruli) -At level of glomerulus, water & solutes in blood plasma are filtered through capillary walls, into glomerular (Bowman's) capsule space & into renal tubule -Blood flows out of glomerulus into efferent arteriole -Efferent arteriole leads to another capillary network - peritubular capillaries -Peritubular capillaries merge to ultimately form renal vein which leaves kidney

Answer 4

Tangled ball-like network of capillaries (pl. glomeruli)

Answer 5

-At level of glomerulus, water & solutes in blood plasma are filtered through the capillary walls, into glomerular (Bowman's) capsule space & into renal tubule -Fluid enters capsular space is called glomerular filtrate As filtered fluid moves along the renal tubule & connecting duct: -Most of the water & usful solutes are reabsorbed & returned to blood in peritubular capillaries -Wastes are drawm from peritubular capillaries & are secreted into fluid for removal from body -Urine: fluid produced by kidneys that contains wastes & excess materials

Answer 6

fluid produced by kidneys that contains wastes & excess materials

Answer 7

-Amount of filtrate formed per min -GFR is indicator of kidney function -GFR is fairly constant under normal conditions -Increased GFR = Increased urine production -Decreased GFR = Decreased urine production

Answer 8

Glomerular Filtrate

Answer 9

Increased urine production

Answer 10

Decreased urine production

Answer 11

In general, body will regulate GFR by: -Adjusting blood flow into and out of glomerulus -Altering capillary surface area available for filtration

Answer 12

1. Renal auto-regulation 2. Neural regulation 3. Hormonal regulation

Answer 13

-Myogenic Mechanism -Tubuloglomerular Feedback

Answer 14

-Increase in BP Increases renal blood flow which increases GFR -Stretches walls of afferent arterioles -Stretching triggers contraction of smooth muscles in walls of afferent arterioles -Vasoconstiction reduces blood flow & reduces GFR to previous level -Opposite happens with decrease in BP

Answer 15

-Increase in BP increases renal blood flow which increases GFR -Also increases Na+, Cl-, & water in tubular fluid -The increased Na+, Cl-, & water in tubular fluid triggers vasoconstriction of afferent arteriole -Vasoconstriction reduces blood flow and decreases GFR to previous level -Opposite happens with decrease in BP

Answer 16

-Kidney gets SyNS innervation -SyNS activation causes vasoconstriction (both afferent & efferent) -With increasing SyNS activation, vasoconstriction of afferent arteriole is greater which decreases GFR -This reduces GFR & helps redirect blood flow to other tissues

Answer 17

Angiotensin II -Strong vasoconstrictor (both afferent and efferent) -Reduces GFR Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP) -Released by heart in response to atrial stretching (i.e. increased blood volume) -Increases GFR

Answer 18

-Strong vasoconstrictor (both afferent and efferent) -Reduces GFR

Answer 19

-Released by heart in response to atrial stretching (i.e. increased blood volume) -Increases GFR

Answer 20

-Re-absorbtion & secretion occur once filtrate (fluid that comes out of glomerulus) is formed -Normally, most water & solutes return to the body & many wastes (H+, ammonium, medications) are secreted onto tubule for elimination

Answer 21

1. Angiotensin II 2. Aldosterone 3. ANP 4. ADH 5. PTH

Answer 22

-Decreased BP -> Kidneys secrete renin (an enzyme) -Renin converts angiotensinogen (made by liver) into angiotensin I -Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II at lungs by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) Angiotensin II: -Decrease GFR (afferent arteriole vasoconstriction -Re-absorbtion of Na+ & Cl- ions & water -Stimulates release of aldosterone

Answer 23

Increase re-absorbtion of Na+, Cl-, & water

Answer 24

Increases excretion of sodium and water

Answer 25

Increases water reabsorption

Answer 26

Increases re-absorbtion of calcium

Answer 27

-Collecting ducts (which receive urine from several nephrons), collect & form larger & larger pathways to level of the ureter (1 from each kidney) -Peristaltic contractions in ureter move urine to bladder -Bladder is a hollow muscular organ that sits posterior to pubic symphysis, anterior to rectum, & in females sits inferior to uterus -Internal urethral sphincter: Controls flow of urine from bladder into urethra -Urethra: Tube from floor of bladder to exterior -External urethral sphincter: Part of pelvic floor mm., controls flow of urine out of urethra

Answer 28

Controls flow of urine from bladder into urethra

Answer 29

Tube from floor of bladder to exterior

Answer 30

Part of pelvic floor mm., controls flow of urine out of the urethra

Answer 31

-Micturition/Urination/Voiding: discharge of urine -Pressure within bladder stimulates stretch receptors which initiate reflex via PaNS - bladder contracts, internal sphincter relaxes -Bladder filling gives a sensation of fullness before micturition reflex occurs -After early childhood, we have conscious control

Answer 32

Discharge of urine

Answer 33

-Urinary incontinence: lack of voluntary control over micturition Causes: -Increased abdominal pressure (stress incontinence) -Nerve damage -Aging -Disease/Injury -Some medications -Smoking

Answer 34

Lack of voluntary control over micturition

Answer 35

-Kidneys decrease in size -Renal blood flow & GFR decrease -Glomeruli become less (or non-) functional -Kidney diseases become more common

Answer 36

-Substances (including medications) that decrease reabsorption of water -Medications, food/drink

Answer 37

-Artificial cleansing of the blood

Answer 38

Specialized branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis & treatment of diseases of female reproductive system

Answer 39

Male & female urinary systems & male reproductive system

Answer 40

Germ cells (sperm in males, egg in females) that combine to form offspring

Answer 41

Developing organism from fertilization to end of 8 weeks

Answer 42

Developing organism (in utero) from 9 weeks to birth

Answer 43

-Scrotum -Testes -Epididymis -Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens) -Seminal Vesicles -Prostate -Bulbourethral Glands -Urethra

Answer 44

Sac of loose skin & CT that supports testes - contains muscles that contract in response to cold to elevate the testes (or relax to lower them)

Answer 45

Site of sperm production - Within testes are cells that produce testosterone

Answer 46

Temporary storage site for immature sperm - it covers posterior & superior testis

Answer 47

Tube that sperm travel through - runs from epididymis into pelvic cavity, over & behind the bladder to urethra

Answer 48

Located at base of the bladder, they produce seminal fluid which nourishes sperm

Answer 49

normally about size of a golf ball, it encircles urethra just below bladder - functions to secrete fluid into urethra that supports sperm function

Answer 50

Below prostate, they secrete mucous to lubricate urethra & an alkaline fluid to neutralize acids from urine in urethra

Answer 51

Transports Sperm (and urine) to exterior

Answer 52

-Ovaries -Fallopian (uterine) Tubes -Uterus

Answer 53

On either side of uterus, produce eggs & hormones - ligaments hold them in place

Answer 54

Extending laterally from uterus, they receive the ovum & provide site for fertilization -They don't connect to the ovary - they connect to superior uterus - ligaments hold them in place -Peristalsis & movement of cilia transport ovum to uterus

Answer 55

In pelvis between bladder & the rectum -Receives, retains & nourishes fertilized egg -Supported by ligaments (broad ligament, round ligament anteriorly, uterosacral ligament posteriorly) -Thick wall of uterus has 3 layers - inner layer is endometrium which is the site of implantation of embryo - without pregnancy, it sloughs off as part of menstrual cycle

Answer 56

-Located in breast tissue superficial to pectoralis major & serratus anterior & are attached to them by a layer of deep CT -Supportad by Cooper's Ligament which anchor skin the the deep CT -Modified sudoroferous glands, function to produce milk Lactation: Synthesis & ejection of milk Production is controlled by: Prolactin Ejection is controlled by: Oxytocin -Female sex hormones (primarily estrogens) increase mammary gland size at puberty -Present in males & females but only functional in females

Answer 57

Synthesis & ejection of milk

Answer 58

-"The non-specific response of the body to any demand for change" -"Physical, mental, or emotional strain or tension" -"A condition of feeling experiences when a person perceives that demands exceed personal & social resources the individual is able to mobilize" -Eustress: 'good' stress -Distress: 'bad' stress

Answer 59

'good' stress

Answer 60

'bad' stress

Answer 61

-The wide-ranging set of bodily changes, triggered by a stressor that gears body to meed an emergency -Stressor: any stimulus that produces a stress response -Stressors can be internal or external -Stress response is normal but is designed to be an acute response -Contemporary stress is more insidious because it's more physiology than physically driven

Answer 62

Any stimulus that produces a stress response

Answer 63

Nature of the stressor & state of person being stressed determine stress response... -Time -Thoughts, moods, feelings & beliefs -Your perceptions of the stressor -Physical State -Disease States -Inadequate Sleep -Age

Answer 64

-Increased HR -Increased Fluid Retention -Increased BP -Redirection of blood floe (increased to brain, heart, lungs, skeletal muscles - decreased to viscera, skin) -Bronchodilaton -Mobilization of energy substrates

Answer 65

-Short lived -Hypothalamus increases SyNS firing -Adrenal Medulla: epinephrine, norepinephrine -Mobilizes resources to relevant organs (brain, skeletal muscles, heart) for immediate activity -Digestive, urinary, reproductive systems are inhibited

Answer 66

-Longer lasting -Initiated by hypothalamus -Enhances & prolongs effects of SyNS -ACTH: adrenal cortex is stimulated to release more cortisol -hGH: lipolysis, glycogenolysis -Glucagon: Increases blood glucose -TSH: Increases glucose utilization -Helps get us through a stressful phase

Answer 67

epinephrine, norepinephrine

Answer 68

adrenal cortex is stimulated to release more cortisol

Answer 69

lipolysis, glycogenolysis

Answer 70

Increases blood glucose

Answer 71

Increases glucose utilization

Answer 72

-Resources get depleted & can't support resistance -Prolonged elevated cortisol levels can lead to muscle wasting, immune suppression, ulceration, pancreatic beta cell failure -Pancreatic reactions may persist even after stressor is removed

Answer 73

-If part(s) of homeostatic control system are dysfunctional, homeostasis may not be maintained (or is harder to maintain) -If moderately affected, disease states occur -If severely affected, death is possuble

Answer 74

-Longer healing times -Poorer healing -As you age, the ability to maintain & (when disturbed) return to homeostasis decreases

Answer 75

Exact mechanisms are not well established but effects of stress can clearly predispose you to (or be an exacerbating factor for) certain ailments -Rheumatoid Arthritis -Immune suppression -MSK (TMJ, HA, torticollis, increased muscle tone) -CV conditions (hypertension, CAD, AHD -GI dysfunction -Metabolic syndrome -Diabetes -CNS conditions (CP, MS, Parkinson's, epilepsy...) -FM, CFS -Insomnia -Anxiety -Depression -Irritability/personality changes -Unhealthy behaviours (excessive or abusive use of alcohol and/or drugs, smoking, decreased excercise, poor nutritional choices...) -Obesity

Answer 76

-De-stress -Improved sleep (which through the endocrine system facilitates healing) -Improved digestion -Help maintain healthy systems (immune, renal, CV, CNS, etc...) -Maximize healing & quality of healing -Help prevent disease states/exacerbation of diseases

Answer 77

Tools we can use -Massage -Hydrotherapy -Breathing Techniques -Stretching (esp. static stretching) -Joint mobilizations Element of hands on techniques that can be effective -Rate (slower techniques) -Transitions Other treatment factors -The way you communicate -Temperature

Answer 78

-ATP is split into ADP + Pi + Energy - the energy is used to power cell functions -To use the ATP again, you have to reform it (ADP + PI + Energy = ATP) -Cells reform ATP by one of 3 metabolic pathways: 1. Phosphocreatine (PCr) 2. Anaerobic cellular respiration 3. Aerobic cellular respiration -PCr system is unique to muscle fibres -All cells can produce ATP using anaerobic and aerobic pathways -Energy systems work together to generate ATP but one system is usually less dominant based on the demand (e.g. sprinting vs. walking)

Answer 79

1. Phosphocreatine (PCr) 2. Anaerobic cellular respiration 3. Aerobic cellular respiration

Answer 80

-PCr is a molecule that stores high amounts of energy in chemical bonds -When PCr is split by enzyme, energy released is used to reform ATP -Happens very fast therefore PCr is first energy pathway used -Provides energy for 3-15 sec of maximal contraction -No oxygen needed, no lactic acid produced

Answer 81

-When muscle activity continues & PCr is depleted, glucose is used to make ATP -Cells break down glycogen stored in their cytoplasm/sarcoplasm or glucose from blood & energy released in breaking them down is used to reform ATP -Making ATP from glucose occurs in cell cytoplasm is called glycolysis -One molecule of glucose is broken into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid & 2-3 ATP -If oxygen is present, pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria where it undergoes series of reactions (that require oxygen) called aerobic cellular respiration -During heavy exercise/demand, not enough oxygen is available ('hence anaerobic') -In absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid does not go into mitochondria instead is converted into lactic acid/lactate -Lactic acid diffuses out of the cell into the blood where is used by other cells or converted back into glucose in liver -No oxygen required and producing lactic acid + anaerobic lactic -Capable of supplying energy for 30-40sec

Answer 82

-Metabolic by-product of anaerobic metabolism -At lower levels of activity, lactate does not accumulate -It is also converted back into to glucose/glycogen in liver (the Cori cycle) -Lactic acid has a 1/2 life of 15-25 min & is cleared in (at most) a matter of hours

Answer 83

-This pathway is active when you are able to get oxygen into the cells (e.g. at rest or at low-moderate intensity exercise) -Oxygen is delivered by myoglobin or from oxygen diffusing from blood -In the presence of oxygen, pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria and in a series of reactions (that uses oxygen), produces much more ATP (much more than glycolysis) -Carbohydrates, fats, & proteins can be usedin this process to make ATP -Carbohydrates yield relatively little ATP -Fats yield a lot of ATP Proteins aren't used readily (often not even included) -At rest, cells of the body use aerobic metabolism to generate their ATP -In activities that last longer than 10 min, most (90%) of ATP generated comes from aerobic system

Answer 84

-A single acute bout of activity that requires energy expenditure above resting levels -Typically planned and structured -Designed to improve or maintain one or more components of physical fitness

Answer 85

-How body responds to a single bout of excercise

Answer 86

-How body responds over time to the stress of repeated bouts of exercise

Answer 87

-Number of times a particular movement is repeated

Answer 88

Number of repetitions grouped together

Answer 89

Performing a given exercise until you cannot perform another repetition with proper technique

Answer 90

-Ability of contractile tissue to generate tension (contract) -Often viewed in the context of the maximum force that can be generated by a muscle or muscle group with one contraction -Functional strength is the ability of the neuromuscular system to generate & control forces during functional activities

Answer 91

-Ability to produce low intensity repeated activities over prolonged time frames

Answer 92

Ability of a joint or series of joints to move through a full ROM without injury

Answer 93

-Heart Rate: During exercise, increases directly in proportion to thee intensity of the exercise (there is a natural limit) -Blood Pressure: Systolic increases, diastolic doesn't change appreciably (Note: significant increases in blood pressure are seen with holding breath on exertion) (e.g. during resistance training exercise) -Blood flow: Increases to the working structures, & is decreased to viscera -Ventilation: Increases during exercise

Answer 94

Heart Rate: During exercise, increases directly in proportion to thee intensity of the exercise (there is a natural limit)

Answer 95

Blood Pressure: Systolic increases, diastolic doesn't change appreciably (Note: significant increases in blood pressure are seen with holding breath on exertion) (e.g. during resistance training exercise)

Answer 96

Blood flow: Increases to the working structures, & is decreased to viscera

Answer 97

Ventilation: Increases during exercise

Answer 98

-Initial strength gains are due primarily to neural adaptation (often rapid - within 4-8 weeks) -Neural Adaptation: Motor learning, increased rate and synchronization of firing -Subsequent increases are due primarily to hypertrophy -hypertrophy comes after the initial gains & is from increased protein content (i.e. actin, myosin) -Tendons, ligaments get stronger

Answer 99

-Increased muscle capillarization -Increase in number & size of mitochondria -Increased energy substratestorage (PCr, fats, glycogen) -Tendons, ligaments get stronger

Answer 100

-Ongoing increased flexibility/range of motion -Improperly applied, there is a risk of hypermobility

Answer 101

Frequency - How often the exercise is performed per day or per week Intensity - how hard someone is working Time - How long the activity is performed Type - What is the activity being performed

Answer 102

-Appropriate frequency depends on the goal, mode of exercise (strength training, aerobic etc.), & intensity -e.g. post. surgical muscle setting (to offset atrophy, maintain neural pathways) may require low weight, low repetition isometric exercises multiple times per day -e.g. standard weight, standard repetition resistance exercises (to improve strength) usually require a day of recovery in between -e.g. maintenance of strength may require higher intensity exercise with 2-3 days recovery in between -e.g. performance related cardio training: higher% HRmax, 3-5x per week -e.g. health related cardio fitness: 60% HRmax, daily (one session or spread out over 10 min bouts)

Answer 103

Muscle strength training : 6-12 reps (to failure), 2-3 sets Muscle endurance training: 15-50 reps (to failure), 3-5 sets -Aerobic training: 30 min, 60-80% HRmax

Answer 104

-How long the program is being done for (weeks - months) -Note adaptations & goals

Answer 105

Resistance training, balance/proprioception training, aerobic training -Specifics (e.g. strength, endurance, isometrics, running, swimming, walking)

Answer 106

-Amount of time between sets -This ranges from 1-2 min (low intensity exercises) to 4-5 min (high intensity exercises)

Answer 107

Specificity - select exercises that is best suited to meeting the goal Overload - to achieve the goal , you must challenge the system beyond it's current level (manipulate FITT) Recovery - allow sufficient time between exercises (sets & days/week) Progression - to achieve the goal, you have to move beyond the adaptation Maintenance - once the goal has been achieved, it can be maintained with a reduction of 1/3-2/3 frequency as long as the intensity is maintained

Answer 108

-'The partial or complete loss of training-induced adaptations' -Adaptations are reversible -Detraining may occur for many reasons (lack of compliance, injury, illness)

Answer 109

-Muscle tenderness, pain on palpation, stiffness after exercise -Typically starts about 8 hours after, peaks in 24-48 hrs & dissipates in a few days Not fully understood but there are theories - the current models include the following factors: -Unaccustomed high intensity exercise (esp. eccentric exercises) causes damage to structural proteins in the muscle fibres -Inflammatory & immune processes activate -These processes (esp. the fluid accumulation) also irritate nerve endings (causing pain)

Additional Material Testable on Final Flashcards

(136 cards)