Test 4 Material Flashcards
(165 cards)
1
Q
Gastrointestinal System
A
Organs that collectively perform digestion and absorption
2
Q
Digestion
A
Breaking down of food into molecules small enough to be absorbed
3
Q
Absorbtion
A
Passage of molecules through plasma membranes of cells lining stomach and intestines into blood and lymph
4
Q
Structures of the Gastrointestinal System
A
1) Gastrointestinal Tract
2) Accessory Digestive Organs
5
Q
Gastrointestinal Tract
A
-a.k.a. alimentary canal
-Continuous tube from the mouth to to anus
6
Q
Accessory Digestive Organs
A
-Teeth
-Tongue
-Salivary Glands
-Liver
-Gallbladder
-Pancrease
7
Q
Functions of the Gastrointestinal System
A
- Ingestion
- Secretion
- Mixing and Propultion
- Digestion
- Absorption
- Elimination
8
Q
Ingestion
A
Eating
9
Q
Secretion
A
Cells in walls of GI tract and accessory organs secrete water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into lumen of tract
10
Q
Mixing and Propultion
A
Muscles in organ wall rhythmically contract and relax to mix food and secretions together and move mixture through the system
11
Q
2 Types of Digestion
A
- Mechanical
- Chemical
12
Q
Mechanical Digestion
A
-Tongue mixes food
-Teeth grind and cut food
-Stomach and small intestine churn/mix food
13
Q
Chemical Digestion
A
-Enzymes help break larger nutrients into smaller ones (which can then be absorbed)
-Enzymes are secreted by salivary glands, tongue, stomach, pancreas, small intestine
14
Q
Absorption
A
-Taken in through membranes of cells lining stomach and small intestine
-Enters blood or lymphatic systems
-Circulated throughout body
15
Q
Elimination
A
-a.k.a. defecation
-Feces: wastes, undigested substances, unabsorbed substances, bacteria, cells sloughed off from GI tract lining
16
Q
Feces
A
wastes, undigested substances, unabsorbed substances, bacteria, cells sloughed off from GI tract lining
17
Q
Mastication
A
Chewing
18
Q
Deglutition
A
Swallowing
19
Q
Emesis
A
Vomiting
20
Q
Gustation
A
Taste
21
Q
Teeth
A
Cut/grind food, mix with saliva, make food more manageable to swallow (mastication/mechanical digestion)
22
Q
Toungue
A
Skeletal Muscle covered in mucous membrane
23
Q
Salivary Glands (Major Ones)
A
-Parotid
-Submandibular Glands
-Sublingual Glands
24
Q
Parotid
A
Inferior and anterior to ear, between skin and masseter
25
Submandibular Glands
Floor of mouth
26
Sublingual Glands
Beneath tongue
27
Saliva
Water, Solutes, Enzymes
28
Bolus
Soft, flexible mass that is swallowed (i.e. passes into the pharynx)
29
Pharynx
-a.k.a. throat
-Skeletal muscle lined with mucous membrane
-Muscle contractions move bolus from the mouth into pharynx into esophagus
30
Esophagus
-Skeletal and smooth muscle
-Collapsible muscular tube sitting posterior to trachea
-Runs from lowest segment of pharynx through diaphragm ( esophageal hiatus) to superior aspect of stomach
-Peristalsis: Wave-like contractions of smooth muscle lining walls of GI tract that move bolus along tract (from esophagus to anus)
-Passage of food from pharynx into esophagus controlled by upper esophageal sphincter
-Passage of food from esophagus into stomach controlled by lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
31
What is the Function of the Esophagus?
Secrete mucous & transport bolus to stomach
32
Peristalsis
Wave-like contractions of smooth muscle lining walls of GI tract that move bolus along tract (from esophagus to anus)
33
Passage of food from the esophagus into the stomach is controlled by the ____________________.
Lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
34
Passage of food from the pharynx into the esophagus is controlled by the __________________.
Upper esophageal sphincter
35
Layers of the GI Tract
Wall of the GI tract from lower esophagus to anal canal has same 4 layered arrangment
36
What are the layers of the GI Tract from deep to superficial?
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
4. Serosa
37
Mucosa is a mucous membrane consisting of?
-Epithelium
-Lamina Propria
-Muscularis Mucosa
38
Epithelium
-Epithelial cells
-Exocrine cells (secrete mucous, liquid)
-Enteroendocrine Cells (secrete hormones)
39
Lamina Propria
-CT (areolar)
-Blood and Lymphatic Vessels (for absorption)
-Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) (for immune function/protection)
40
Muscularis Mucosa
Smooth muscle layer creates folds in mucosa
41
Submucosa
-CT layer binds mucosa to muscularis layer
-Contains many blood & lymphatic vessels (for nutrient transport)
-Contains neurons of enteric nervous system for GI control
42
Muscularis
Skeletal muscle: mouth, pharynx, upper 2/3rds of esophagus, external anal sphincter
Smooth muscle: everything else
Generally in 2 layers:
-Circular fibres
-Longitudinal Fibres
Contractions Help:
-Break down food
-Mix food with secretions
-Move food through GI Tract
Contractions (frequency and strength) controlled by enteric nervous system
43
Serosa
-Serous membrane
-Outermost layer of organs in abdominal cavity
-a.k.a. visceral peritoneum
44
What are the 2 layers of Peritoneum?
-Viceral Peritoneum (a.k.a. the Serosa)
-Parietal Peritoneum
45
Between the 2 layers of the Peritoneum is the __________.
Peritoneal Cavity
46
Some organs (kidney, ascending and descending colons, duodenum, pancreas) are covered by the peritoneum on their anterior side only they are called ________________.
Retroperitoneal
47
The Peritoneum contains?
Large folds bind organs to one another and to walls of the abdominal cavity
48
Stomach
-J-shaped enlargement of GI tract
-Sits immediately below diaphragm
-Runs from esophagus to small intestine
-Can expand to hold several litres
-Food enters stomach through LES
-The stomach mixes food for 2-4 hours
-The soupy mix of food in stomach called chyme
-Little to no absorption happens in stomach (water, ions, some fats, medications, alcohol)
-Once food particles are small enough, they pass through pyloric sphincter into small intestine
49
The wall of the stomach has the same 4 layered arrangement with some additions which are?
1. Specialized Cells
2. Additional layer of smooth muscle
50
Mucosal layer has specialized cells that secrete?
1. Mucous (mucous neck cells)
2. Intrinsic factor and HCL (parietal cells)
3. Pepsinogen and Gastric Lipase (Chief Cells)
4. Gastrin (Hormone secreted by G cells)
-Stimulates gastric juice production
-Strengthen LES contraction
-Increases stomach peristalsis
-Relaxes the pyloric sphincter
5. Secretions from mucous, parietal and chief cells (G cells not included) are collectively called gastric juice
51
Mucous
Mucous Neck Cells
52
Intrinsic factor and HCL
Parietal Cells
53
Pepsinogen and Gastric Lipase
Chief Cells
54
Gastrin
Hormone Secreted by G Cells-Stimulates gastric juice production
-Strengthen LES contraction
-Increases stomach peristalsis
-Relaxes the pyloric sphincter
55
Secretions from mucous, parietal and chief cells (G cells not included) are collectively called ____________.
gastric juice
56
Muscularis has an additional (oblique) layer of smooth muscle to _______________.
Facilitate Mixing
57
Small Intestine
~ 3m long and 2.5cm diameter
Large surface area for digestion & absorption
3 Regions:
-Duodenum
-Jejunum
-Ileum
Circular folds: ridges in mucosa/submucosa that increase surface area
Mucosal layer has villi - finger like projections increase surface area
Each villus is covered in epithelium
Cells of the epithelium:
-Absorptive Cells (digestion/absorption)
-Goblet Cells
-Paneth Cells
-Enteroendocrine cells (secrete hormones)
Absorptive cells have microvilli (brush border)
Each villus has an arteriole, a venule and a lacteal
58
What are the 3 regions of the small intestine?
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
59
Circular folds
Ridges in mucosa/submucosa increase surface area
60
What are the cells of the epithelium?
-Absorptive Cells (digestion/absorption)
-Goblet Cells
-Paneth Cells
-Enteroendocrine cells (secrete hormones)
61
Mucosal layer of small intestine has?
Villi - finger like projections increases surface area
62
Each villus in the small intestine is covered in?
Epithelium
63
In the small intestine absorptive cells have?
Microvilli (brush border)
64
in the small intestine each villus has an?
Arteriole, a Venule and a Lacteal
65
Intestinal and pancreatic juices absorbed nutrients pass into either?
-Blood stream (carbohydrates, proteins, water, electrolytes, water-soluble vitamins) and go to liver
-Lymphatics (lipids) via a lacteal
-Remaining food passes through ileocecal valve/sphincter into large intestine
66
Pancreas
-Posterior to stomach
-Both endocrine and exocrine functions
-Exocrine Function: Secretes pancreatic juice (water, salts, sodium bicarbonate, enzymes) into duodenal lumen
-Juices are secreted into proximal duodenum via 2 main ducts:
1.Common duct formed by pancreatic duct joining common bile duct from liver gallbladder
2. Accessory duct
67
What is the Pancreas Exocrine Function?
Secretes pancreatic juice (water, salts, sodium bicarbonate, enzymes) into duodenal lumen
68
In the Pancreas juices are secreted into the proximal duodenum via 2 main ducts which are?
-Common duct formed by pancreatic duct joining common bile duct from liver gallbladder
-Accessory duct
69
Liver
Sits inferior to diaphragm in right superior region of abdominal cavity
2 Lobes: larger right & smaller left
Receives blood flow from 2 sources:
-Hepatic Artery - Oxygenated Blood
-Hepatic Portal Vein - Deoxygenated blood containing absorbed nutrients, medications, microbes and toxins
Blood flows past hepatocytes (liver cells)
Hepatocytes:
-Absorb oxygen, nutrients, & toxins
-Release nutrients (needed by other cells)
Blood eventually flows into hepatic vein
Hepatocytes also manufacture & secrete bile
70
What are the 2 Lobes of the Liver?
larger right & smaller left
71
Liver receives blood flow from 2 sources which are?
-Hepatic Artery - Oxygenated Blood
-Hepatic Portal Vein - Deoxygenated blood containing absorbed nutrients, medications, microbes and toxins
72
Hepatocytes
-Absorb oxygen, nutrients, and toxins
-Release nutrients (needed by other cells)
Blood eventually flows into hepatic vein
Hepatocytes also manufacture and secrete bile
73
Carbohydrate Metabolism (Liver)
-Helps Maintain blood Sugar Levels
-Low blood Sugar - Hepatocytes breakdown glycogen & release glucose into the blood
-High Blood Sugar - Hepatocytes remove glucose from blood & store it (as glycogen and fats)
-Can convert some amino acids, lactic acid, & other sugars into glucose
74
Lipid Metabolism (Liver)
-Hepatocytes store fat, break it down (to make ATP), & make cholesterol
75
Protein Metabolism (Liver)
-Makes amino acids available for energy
-Can convert amino acids into carbs or fats
-Synthesizes most plasma proteins
76
Drug and Hormone Processing (Liver)
-Detoxifies inactivates substances (drugs, alcohol, hormones)
-bilirubin elimination
-vitamin & mineral storage
-vitamin D activation
77
Gallbladder
-Pear-shaped organ sitting in posterior surfac of liver
-Stores & concentrates bile
78
Bile
-Yellow/brown/olive liquid
-Made by hepatocytes
-Collects into larger & larger vessels
79
Bile (function)
emulsification (breakdown) of fats
80
Half Life (medication)
Time 50%
81
Onset of action (medication)
30min
82
Large Intestine
-Food enters from small intestine (Ileum) through ileocecal valve/sphincter
83
What are the 4 main regions of the large intestine?
-Cecum
-Colon
-Rectum
-Anal Canal
84
Large Intestine (functions)
Completion of absorption, vitamin K production, formation & elimination of feces
85
Cecum
-Small pouch attached to ileocecal valve
-Attached to the cecum is appendix
-Contents move from cecum into colon
86
What are the 4 portions of the Colon?
-Ascending (to the hepatic flexture)
-Transverse (to the splenic flexure)
-Descending (to the left iliac crest)
-Sigmoid (to the rectum at ~S3)
87
Colon
-As food accumulates in ascending colon, haustra fill up/distend which stimulates smooth muscle contraction & food moves into next haustra
-Regular peristalsis occurs but more slowly
-With each meal, mass peristalsis moves feces from transverse colon into rectum
88
Rectum
-Travels inferiorly to the anal canal
89
Anal Canal
-Terminal portion of large intestine
-Elimination control: Internal (involuntary control) & external (voluntary control) anal sphincters
90
Defecation Reflex
Distension of rectum ultimately gives urge to go & relaxes internal anal sphincter
91
Divisions of GI Tract
-Upper GI
-Lower GI
92
Upper GI
Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Duodenum
93
Lower GI
Most of intestines & anus
94
What are the 3 overlapping phases of digestion?
-Cephalic
-Gastric
-Intestinal
95
Cephalic Phase
-The thought, small, sight, initial taste of food activates the NS
-Salivary and gastric glands are stimulated to prepare mouth & stomach for digestion
96
Gastric Phase (once food reaches the stomach)
-Stretch receptors are stimulated by change in stomach shape
-Chemo receptors are stimulated by change in stomach PH
97
Gastric Phase (changes after food reaches stomach)
-Increase peristalsis & gastric juice production
-Stimulate gastrin release
98
Gastric Phase
Once food reaches stomach:
-Stretch receptors are stimulated by change in stomach shape
-Chemo receptors are stimulated by change in stomach PH
These changes:
-Increase peristalsis & gastric juice production
-Stimulate gastrin release
-Small amounts of chyme pass through pyloric sphincter into duodenum
-Food leaving stomach decreases volume of the stomach and removes some of the stimulus from stretch receptors
-Food leaving stomach allows stomach to become more acidic
-Decreasing stretch receptor stimulation & normalizing PH removes some of the stimulus for gastrin release
99
Intestinal Phase
-Chyme in duodenum causes enteroendocrine cells to release hormones:
-Cholecystokinin (CCK)
-Secretin
These Hormones:
-Stimulates gallbladder to eject bile into duodenum (CCK)
-Secretin decrease gastric juice production (CCK/Secretin)
-Slow food coming through pyloric valve (CCK/Secretin)
-Increase pancreatic juice secretion (CCK/Secretin)
100
Endocrine System
-System of glands & cells that secrete hormones to regulate & integrate body systems
-Control System
-Endocrine Glands: Organs that secrete substances into the blood in response to stimuli
-Glands work slower (seconds-hours-days)
101
Endocrine Glands
Organs that secrete substances into blood in response to stimuli
102
Hormones
-Chemical messengers (a.k.a. mediator molecules)
-Released into interstitial fluid which then enter bloodstream and via the circulation, have access to body cells
-They are released in one part of body to regulate activity in another
103
Hormone Receptors
-To function (deliver message) hormones must bind to receptors on cell membranes of target cells/organs
-When hormone binds to receptor, it changes shape of receptor
-Changing the receptor's shape activates pathways that modify cellular functions (i.e. message is delivered)
-One hormone can regulate several different body functions
-One body function can be regulated by several different hormones
104
Upregulation
-Increase in target cell receptors due to lack of circulating hormone
-Increases sensitivity to hormone
105
Down Regulation
Decrease in target cell receptors due to an excess of circulating hormone
-Decreases sensitivity to hormone
106
Hormone Levels
-Most hormones are present in body all the time (usually in small amounts)
-Levels fluctuate depending on demand & normal body rhythms
-Normal levels can be altered by environment, stress, inflammation, pathologies
-Normal rhythms often absent in disease states
107
Secretion Control
-Nervous System
-Chemical changes in blood
-Other Hormones
-In most cases, hormone levels are managed through negative feedback loops
108
Primary Glands
-Pituitary
-Thyroid
-Parathyroid
-Adrenal
-Pineal
109
Other Organs that Secrete Hormones
-Hypothalamus
-Thymus
-Ovaries/Testes
-Pancreas
-Kidneys
-Stomach & Small Intestine
-Heart
-Adipose tissue
-Placenta
-Liver
-Skin
110
Hypothalamus & Pituitary
-These 2 regulate all aspects of growth, development, metabolism, & homeostasis
111
Hypothalamus
-Major integrating centre between nervous & endocrine systems
-Receives input/information from many different structures
-Controls ANS, regulates synthesis & release of anterior pituitary hormones
-Neurologically, regulates synthesis & release of posterior pituitary hormones
112
Pituitary
-a.k.a. Hypophysis
-Small gland, sits in sella turcica of sphenoid bone
-Has 2 lobes:
1. Anterior lobe (a.k.a. Adenohypophysis)
2. Posterior Lobe (a.k.a. Neuhypophysis)
113
Anterior Pituitary
-Release or inhibition of it's hormones is controlled hormonally by hypothalamus
Hormones:
-Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
-Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
-Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
-Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
-Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
-Prolactin (PRL)
-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
114
Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
-Stimulates tissue growth
-Promotes healing & tissue repair
-Increase use of lipids for energy
-Decreases cellular uptake of glucose/elevates blood glucose levels
-hGH is released in bursts every few hours
115
Factors that promote Release of Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
-Hypoglycemia
-Deep sleep (stages 3 & 4 or non REM)
-Increased SyNS (e.g. vigorous exercise)
-Other hormones (glucagon, cortisol, insulin, estrogens)
116
Factors that inhibit Release of Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
-Hypoglycemia
-REM sleep
-Obesity
-Low levels of thyroid hormones
-High levels hGH in the blood (negative loop)
117
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
-Stimulates release of thyroid hormones by thyroid gland
-Its release is dependent on level of thyroid hormones in blood
118
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
-Stimulates release of cortisol from adrenal glands
-Release increases with stress-related stimuli (e.g. injury, hypoglycemia), macrophage activity
119
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
-Females: Triggers ovulation
-Males: Stimulates testes to release testosterone
120
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
-Females: Triggers ovarian follicle development
-Males: Triggers sperm production in testes
121
Prolactin (PRL)
-Initiates and maintains milk production in mammary glands
122
Posterior Pituitary
-Release or inhibition of it's hormones is controlled neurological by hypothalamus
Hormones:
-Oxytocin
-Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) (a.k.a. Vasopressin)
123
Oxytocin
-During delivery, enhances smooth muscle contraction of the uterus
-Post-partum, stimulates milk ejection
124
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
-Decreases urine production
-Causes arteriolar vasoconstriction
125
Factors that promote Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
-Dehydration
-Pain/Stress/Anxiety/Trauma
-Nicotine
-Some Medications
126
Factors that inhibit Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
-Increased blood volume
-Alcohol
127
Thyroid Gland
-Inferior to larynx
-Produces thyroid hormones & calcitonin
-Activity is controlled by hypothalamus-pituitary
128
Thyroid Hormones
-Increase basal metabolic rate
-Maintain body temp
-Stimulate protein synthesis
-Increase use of glucose & lipids to generate ATP
-Mobilize lipids & enhance cholesterol excretion
-Enhance the actions of norepinephrine & epinephrine (= increase HR, increase Heart contractility, increase BP)
-With hGH & insulin, body growth accelerates
129
Calcitonin
-Decreases blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity
130
Parathyroid Gland
-Located on posterior aspect of thyroid gland
-Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
-Increase blood calcium, magnesium, & phosphate levels by increasing number & activity of osteoclasts
-Also works on kidneys to decrease their secretion of calcium & magnesium & promote the formation of calctriol (active form of vitD)
131
Adrenal Glands
-Each has Adrenal Cortex & Adrenal Medulla
132
Adrenal Cortex Releases
1. Aldosterone
2. Cortisol
3. Androgens
133
Adrenal Medulla Releases
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
134
Adrenal Cortex (Aldosterone)
-Regulates sodium & potassium levels
-Helps regulate blood pressure/volume
-Helps in elimination of H+ (acid)
-Stimulates kidneys to reabsorb sodium & water & stimulates arteriolar smooth muscle contraction
-Released in response to dehydration, sodium deficiency, hemorrhage
135
Adrenal Cortex (Cortisol) a.k.a. stress hormone
-Regulates metabolism & provides resistance to stress
-Makes energy available to help body deal with 'stress' (whatever that may be: exercise, fear, bleeding, surgery...)
-Stimulates processes that increase/maintain blood glucose concentrations
-Helps body resist stress by making more energy substrate available & facilitating vasoconstriction
136
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on glucose metabolism
-Maintains blood glucose during fasting
-Increases blood glucose during stress (at expense of muscle & adipose tissues) through gluconeogenisis
-Decrease use of glucose by the tissues
137
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on protein metabolism
-Increase protein breakdown
138
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on lipid metabolism
-Increases lipids in bloodstream
-Increases use of lipids by the tissues
139
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on inflammatory response
-Inhibits it
-Also slows tissue repair
140
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on immune system
-High doses depress immune responses
141
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on cardiovascular system
-Stimulates erythropoietin (EPO) production
142
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on reproductive system
-Inhibits reproductive function
143
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on skeletal system
-Increases bone resorption (removal of calcium from bone & into blood)
-Inhibits osteoblast function
144
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on connective tissue
-Inhibits fibroblast proliferation and collagen formation
-With excessive amounts of cortisol, skin thins and CT support of capillaries is impaired leading to increased bruising
145
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on renal system
-Inhibits ADH secretion
-Increases formation of urine (increased GFR)
146
Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on muscle system
-Excessive levels lead to muscle weakness & pain
147
*Cortisol a.k.a. stress hormone - Effects on GI system
-Stimulates appitite
-Stimulate acid and pepsin secretion (increases risk of ulcer development)
148
Adrenal Cortex (Androgens)
-During puberty: stimulate axillary & pubic hair growth
-Males (after puberty): weak
-Females (after puberty): function in libido & are converted to estrogens
149
Adrenal Medulla
-Produces norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline)
-Both are released during stress & exercise - Increase SyNS response
150
Pineal Gland
-Secretes melatonin to regulate sleep cycles
-Increased secretion in darkness, decreases secretion in sunlight
151
Thymus
Hormones promote maturation of T cells
152
Ovaries
-Secrete estrogens & progesterone which (along with FSH and LH) regulate menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy & prepare mammary glands for lactation
-Initiate/maintain secondary female sex characteristics
-With placenta, they secrete relaxin which increases tissue/joint compliance in preparation for delivery
153
Testes
-Secrete testosterone which regulates sperm production & initiates/maintain secondary male sex characteristics
154
Pancreas
-Located in duodenum
-Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) are endocrine cells which secrete:
1. Glucagon
2. Insulin
3. Somatostatin
155
Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) are the endocrine cells which secrete
1. Glucagon
2. Insulin
3. Somatostatin
156
Glucagon
-Increases blood glucose levels
-Stimulates hepatocytes to release glucose from their stores
-Triggers by hypoglycaemia, exercise
157
Insulin
-Decreases blood glucose levels
Stimulates:
-Body cells to take up glucose from blood
-Hepatocytes to uptake & store glucose (as glycogen)
-Hepatocytes to slow their release of glucose
-Triggered by hyperglycaemia
-Also triggered by hGH, ACTH, PaNS, some amino acids, & GI tract
158
Somatostatin
-Inhibits glucagon & insulin release
-May slow GI absorption
159
Other Endocrine Organs (secondary)
-Kidneys
-Stomach/Intestine
-Heart
-Adipose
-Placenta
-Liver/Skin
160
Other Endocrine Organs (secondary) *Kidneys
Erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates RBC production, calcitriol (active form of vitD)
161
Other Endocrine Organs (secondary) *Stomach/Intestine
Gastrin, CCK, Secretin
162
Other Endocrine Organs (secondary) *Heart
Atrial naturetic peptide (ANP) decreases BP
163
Other Endocrine Organs (secondary) *Adipose
Leptin suppresses appetite
164
Other Endocrine Organs (secondary) *Placenta
Human chronic gonadotropin (hCG) helps maintain pregnancy
165
Other Endocrine Organs (secondary) Liver/Skin
Calcitriol (active form of vitD) - start in skin, continues in liver, ends in kidneys
