Theories and methods

Question 1

Structuralism

What are the features of structuralism?

Answer 1

1.) People’s behaviour moulded by society
2.) Sociology should study the overall structure of society (macro approach)
3.) Quantitative methods should be used in order to measure behaviour and the causes (positivism)

Question 2

Structuralism - Functionalism

What is functionalism known as?

Answer 2

Consensus structuralism

Question 3

Structuralism - Functionalism

What is an organ analogy?

Answer 3

Functionalism:
- Society working in a similar way to the human body
- Made up of interconnected parts
- If one doesn’t work, the whole doesn’t work

Question 4

Structuralism - Functionalism

What are the basics needs of society according to functionalists?

Answer 4

Functional prerequisites –> provided by social institutions

Question 5

Structuralism - Functionalism

What does Parsons suggest about all societies?

Answer 5

Parsons:
All societies have to resolve two sets of problems:
1.) Instrumental: Achieving social goals
2.) Expressive: Maintaining social solidarity

Question 6

Structuralism - Functionalism

What is Parsons GAIL model?

Answer 6

Parsons GAIL model:
- Societies have to satisfy four functional prerequisites.
1.) Goal Attainment –> Selecting and achieving social goals
2.) Adaptation –> Providing basic needs
3.) Integration –> Achieve / maintain social solidarity
4.) Latency –> Minimise social tension and conflict

Question 7

Structuralism - Functionalism

What is structural differentiation?

Answer 7

• Functionalists see society as capable of change, but this is gradual.
• Specialised institution taking over the roles that were performed by another institution
  E.g. Family –> Education

Question 8

Structuralism - Functionalism

What is the evaluation for Parsons as suggested by Merton?

Answer 8

MERTON:
- Criticises the idea that all social institutions perform positive functions per society
–> Manifest functions: intended outcomes from an institution
–> Latent functions: unintended outcomes from an institution (positive or negative) = DYSFUNCTION (don’t work as intended)

Question 9

Structuralism - Functionalism

What are evaluations for consensus structuralism?

Answer 9

AO3:
- Social action theories see it as too deterministic, ignores that individuals have choice over behaviour
- Too focused on the beneficial aspects of society –> struggles to explain conflict in society
- Postmodernist –> value consensus is not possible –> society = too diverse and changing

Question 10

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

What is classical marxism known as?

Answer 10

• Conflict structuralism

Question 11

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

What are the bourgeoisie?

Answer 11

• Own the means of production (factories, law)

Question 12

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

What are the proletariat?

Answer 12

• Work for the bourgeoisie
• Sell their labour power for a wage by producing surplus value (profit)
  –> The profit they produce is far larger than their wages, leading to exploitation

Question 13

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

What occurs due to the exploitation of the proletariat?

Answer 13

• Class conflict
• Workers want higher wages, but the bosses want higher profits

Question 14

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

What is the economic base?

Answer 14

• Underpins everything else in society and consists of
  1.) The means of production: produce society’s goods
  2.) The relation’s of production:
  relations between those involved in production

Question 15

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

What is the superstructure?

Answer 15

• Includes social institutions which are influenced by the economic system

Question 16

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

How does the economic base and the superstructure interact?

Answer 16

• Moves in a spiral pattern
• The base is usually dominant

Question 17

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

What did Marx predict would happen if the gap between the poor and the rich continued to grow?

Answer 17

• Marx thought that the gap between the poor and the rich would grow so much that class consciousness would take place
  –> The rich get richer, the poor get poorer
  = POLARISATION
• Material circumstances of the proletariat would worsen –> realise the exploitation = proletariat revolution (communism)

Question 18

Structuralism - Classical Marxism

What is the evaluation of conflict structuralism?

Answer 18

AO3:
- Marx’s predictions of a proletariat revolution haven’t come true
- More than 2 classes (m/c)
- Ignores other modes of inequality, e.g. gender, ethnicity
- Deterministic: no choice/control
- Class mobility is possible (nouveau riche)

Question 19

Structuralism - Neo-Marxism

How does neomarxism act towards classical marxist theories?

Answer 19

• Neomarxism develops and modifies classical marxism

Question 20

Structuralism - Neo-Marxism

What do the ruling class do according to the Humanistic Neo-marxists?

Answer 20

GRAMSCI:
- The ruling class rely on the consent of the proletariat to control society.
–> They control the institutions that shape society’s ideas
= Everyone accepts the ruling class hegemony, seeing them as common sense.

Question 21

Structuralism - Neo-Marxism

What do the proletariat have according to Humanistic Neo-Marxists

Answer 21

GRAMSCI:
- Argues that the proletariat have dual consciousness: w/c influenced by ruling class but also material circumstances.
–> In times of economic crisis, the w/c have the potential to challenge ruling class ideology.

Question 22

Structuralism - Neo-Marxism

What do the structuralist neo-marxists say?

Answer 22

ALTHUSSER:
- The structure of capitalist is more complex
Superstructure:
1.) The political level –> government, police etc, the repressive state apparatus: physical means to keep the population in line
2.) The ideological level –> ideas and values, the ideological state apparatus: institutions that spread the dominant ideology

Question 23

Structuralism - Neo-Marxism

What do Structuralist neo-marxists argue about choice?

Answer 23

• People don’t have free will and their ideas/behaviours are the products of social structures e.g. social institutions, a revolution will only come about due to a crisis of capitalism.

Question 24

Social Action/Interpretivist

What are the main features of social action or interpretivist theories?

Answer 24

• Society and social institutions are seen as socially constructed by individuals
• People have choice to form their own identities
• Micro approach
• People’s behaviour is driven by meanings they give to people
• Interpretivist –> qualitative methods –> interpret the meanings people give to their behaviour

Question 25

#Social Action/Interpretivist What are the two types of social action theory?

Answer 25

- Symbolic interactionism - Ethnomethodology

Question 26

#Social Action/Interpretivist What are the three basic features of symbolic interactionism?

Answer 26

1.) People act in terms of symbols: these stand for something and individuals have attached meanings to them. 2.) The meanings develop out of the interaction and can change during the course of interaction. 3.) People try to interpret the meanings others give their actions by imagining themselves in their position, successful interaction involves correctly interpreting the sort of person you're interacting with.

Question 27

#Social Action/Interpretivist Symbolic interactionism: What is the looking glass self?

Answer 27

COOLEY: - Process of negotiated interaction - Identity = what we think others think of us - Change our behaviour to change another person's image of us

Question 28

#Social Action/Interpretivist Symbolic interactionism: What is labelling theory?

Answer 28

BECKER: - Others label us --> master status - Interact with us based on this - Conform to label --> self fulfilling prophecy

Question 29

#Social Action/Interpretivist Symbolic interactionism: What is impression management?

Answer 29

GOFFMAN: - Uses a dramaturgical model --> society like a stage - Project identity to others - Try to convince them that this is our identity - True selves = offstage

Question 30

#Social Action/Interpretivist What is ethnomethodology?

Answer 30

GARFINKEL: - Social order = illusion - Created through shared assumptions - No social structure --> Research: breaching experiments - Students act as guests in their own home to record parents reactions to the disruptions of their assumptions.

Question 31

#Social Action/Interpretivist Ethnomethodology: What did Garfinkel's breaching experiments show?

Answer 31

- People create social order through assumptions and meanings shared with others - But also shows how fragile this social order is

Question 32

#Social Action/Interpretivist What are the criticisms to social action theories?

Answer 32

AO3: - Doesn't pay enough attention to the structures of society e.g. gender, class. ethnic inequalities and how these restrict individuals behaviour. - Doesn't explain where people get their meanings and goals from. - Can be seen as a metanarrative.

Question 33

#Integrated approaches What are integrated approaches?

Answer 33

- The idea that behaviour is limited by structures but within limits, we have choice

Question 34

#Integrated approaches What is the Weberian theory?

Answer 34

WEBER: - Religion (Protestant ethic in the Calvinist religion): Protestantism makes people feel guilty, only God can forgive, but his intentions won't be known until the day of judgement. [Social structure] - Interpretation: Calvinism (Working hard) = Both social structure and interpretations work together to create behaviour (through the creation of capitalism)