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Sociology - Beliefs in Society > Topic 1 - Theories of Religion > Flashcards

Topic 1 - Theories of Religion Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 types of definition for religion?

A

Substantiative, Functional, Constructionist

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2
Q

What are substantiative definitions of religion?

A
  • Focus on content or substance of religious belief, like belief in God or the supernatural.
  • These definitions are exclusive - they draw a clear line between religious and non-religious beliefs.
  • They conform to a widespread view of religion as belief in God.
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3
Q

Max Weber (1905) on substantiative definitions

A

Max Weber (1905) defines religion as belief in superior or supernatural power that is above nature cannot be explained scientifically.

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4
Q

2

Limitations of substantiative definitions

A
  • However have western views on God which may not apply to Buddhism, a polytheistic faith. This is where they believe in more than one god.
  • Substantive definitions might still be too inclusive. For example, people who believe in fate, magic, or UFOs might be included as religious according to the above definition.
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5
Q

Functional definitions of religion

A
  • Focus on social or psychological functions it performs for individuals or society.
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6
Q

Emile Durkheim (1915) functional definition of religion

A

Emile Durkheim (1915) defines religion in terms of the contribution it makes to social integration, rather than specific belief in God or the supernatural.

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7
Q

Milton Yinger (1970) functional definition of religion

A

Milton Yinger (1970) identifies functions that religion performs for individuals such as answering ‘ultimate questions’ about the meaning of life and what happens when we die.

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8
Q

2

Strengths of functional definitions

A
  • Inclusive - allow us to include a wide range of beliefs and practises that perform functions such as integration - the ways that different groups come together to form a whole in society.
  • No bias against non-western religions like Buddhism
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9
Q

1

Limitations of functional definitions

A
  • Just because an institution helps integrate individuals into groups, doesn’t make it a religion. E.g. collective chanting at a football match gives a sense of integration but doesn’t make it a religion
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10
Q

Interpretivist approach

Constructionist definitions of religion

A
  • Social constructionists take an interpretivist approach that focuses on how members of society themselves define religion.
  • Interpretivists argue that the study of human society must go beyond empirical and supposedly objective evidence to include subjective views, opinions, emotions, values.
  • They argue it isn’t possible to produce a single, universal definition of religion. They are interested in how definitions of religion are constructed, challenged and fought over.
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11
Q

Alan Aldridge (2013) constructionist definition and what it shows

A

Alan Aldridge (2013) shows how Scientology is a religion for its followers. On the other hand, several governments have denied its legal status as a religion. This shows that definitions can be contested and are influenced by who has power to define the situation.

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12
Q

2

Strenghts of constructionist definitions

A
  • Does not assume belief in god or supernatural, or that it performs similar functions for everyone in all societies.
  • Allows them to get close to individualistic meanings
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13
Q

1

Limitations of constructionist definitions

A
  • Impossible to generalise about the nature of religion due to widely differing views
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14
Q

Functionalist theories of religion main idea

A

Functionalism sees religion performing positive functions for society and individuals,

These include solidarity and integration; provision of values and meanings, and psychological functions.

Functionalists also identify functional alternatives such as civil religion.

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15
Q

Key thinkers in functionalism and religion

A
  • Durkheim (Sacred & Profane, Totemism, Collective Conscience & Cognitive Functions)
  • Malinowski (Psychological Functions)
  • Parsons (Values and meaning)
  • Bellah (Civil Religion as Functional Alternative)
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16
Q

What did Durkheim (1915; 1962) believe was the key feature of religion

A

The sacred and the profane

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17
Q

What is the sacred and the profane?

A

The sacred- things we set apart as extraordinary, which inspire awe and wonder

The profane- things considered mundane and ordinary elements of everyday life

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18
Q

Explanation for Durkheim’s idea that ‘people are worshipping society itself’

A
  1. sacred things represent something of power
  2. this can only be society itself since it’s the only thing powerful enough to command such feelings
  3. therefore, people are worshipping society itself.
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19
Q

Durkheim - main function of sacred symbols

A

They all perform the essential function of uniting believers into a single moral community.

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20
Q

What is totemism?

A

Totemism involves the belief in a sacred relationship between an object (totem) and a human kinship group.

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21
Q

What is clan society?

A

Clan society is the simplest type of society in which religion is found.

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22
Q

Which clan society did Durkheim use?

A

Durkheim used studies of the Arunta, an Aboriginal Australian tribe with a clan system.

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23
Q

Outline Arunta clans

A
  • Arunta clans consist of groups of kin who periodically perform rituals of a sacred totem
  • It is the clan’s emblem, such as an animal or plant symbolic of its origins and identity
  • The totemic rituals serve to reinforce the group’s solidarity and sense of belonging
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24
Q

utterly dependent

How do rituals religious institutions play a central part in creating and maintaining value consensus?

A

Worship of the totem/rituals group creates social solidarity actually worshipping society.

Individual is ‘utterly dependent’ - it reminds the individuals of their complete reliance and dependence on the group for their identity, survival, and social cohesion.

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25
Q

What is the collective conscience according to Durkheim?

A

The collective conscience is the set of shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and cooperation between individuals possible - without these, society would disintegrate.

26
Q

Impact of collective conscience in maintaining social integration

A
  • Remind people of the power of society, they powerless without it
  • Makes us feel part of something greater than us, give strength to face life’s problems.
27
Q

Outline cognitive functions of religion (Durkheim)

A

Durkheim sees religion as the source of intellectual and cognitive capacities.
For instance, to think we need categories like space, cause and time. Secondly, we need the same categories as others in order to share our thoughts.

28
Q

Primitive Classification by Durkheim and Marcel Mauss (1903;2009) key ida?

A
  • Religion provides basic ideas like space cause and time.
  • For instance, ideas about a creator bringing the world.
  • Also, the division of tribes into clans provides humans with their first notion of classification
29
Q

3

Limitations of totemism

A
  • Evidence on totemism isn’t sound. Worsely (1956) states there is no sharp division between the sacred and the profane
  • Harder to apply totemism to large scale societies, where religions may conflict. His theories may explain social integration within communities, but not conflicts between them.
  • Postmodernist Stjepan Mestrovic (2011) argues that Durkheim’s ideas can’t be applied to modern society where there is no longer a single shared value system
30
Q

Who studied pscyhological funtions of religion?

A

Anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski (1954)

31
Q

2 situations in which religion brings about psychological functions - malinowski

A
  1. Where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and thus certain
    > safe lagoon fishing
    > canoe magic
  2. At a time of life crisis
    > religion helps to minimise disruption e.g. birth and death
32
Q

Who studied values and meanings of religion?

A

Parsons (1967)

33
Q

2 functions of religion providing value and meanings - parsons

A
  1. It creates and legitimates society’s central values
    > By sacralising them
  2. It is the primary source of meaning
    > It answers ‘ultimate’ questions
34
Q

What is sacralising with examples?

A

Making beliefs (in this case central values) sacred.

For instance in the USA, Protestantism has sacralised the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline.

35
Q

Who studies civil religion?

A

Robert Bellah (1991; 2013)

36
Q

What is Robert Bellah interested in?

A

He is interested in how religion unifies society, especially those of multi faith

37
Q

How is America a civil religion?

A

In the case of America, civil religion is ‘the American way of life.’ American civil religion equates loyalty to the nation-state and belief in God - the values of being a true American. It is expressed in various beliefs, like the national anthem and pledge of alliance to the flag

38
Q

What is a civil religion?

A

a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself

39
Q

Bellah’s (Civil Religion as a Functional Alternative)

A
  • Supernatural belief not needed
  • e.g. Nazi Germany with the Church of Nazism
  • includes cult practices focused on worshipping German nation/army without god.
40
Q

3

Limitations of functionalism

A
  • Emphasises social nature and positive functions but disregards negative aspects like religion as a source of oppression of the poor or women
  • Ignores religion as a source of division and conflict where there is religious pluralism (many religions), it is hard to see how it can unite people and promote integration
  • It argues this by arguing there may be an overarching belief system, but ignores what makes religion different - its belief in the supernatural
41
Q

Marxism on religion general idea

A

Marxists see religion as dulling the pain of class exploitation and as fostering false consciousness. They see religion as a form of ideology and a response to alienation.

42
Q

Religion as ideology (Marx)

A
  • Marx sees ideology as a belief system that distorts reality to benefit the ruling class.
  • Economic control leads to control over ideas spread through institutions like the church, education, and media.
43
Q

Bible

Falsce conciousness example

A

Christian notion of a camel passing through the eye of a needle being easier than a rich man entering heaven. Such ideas create a false consciousness.

44
Q

How does Lenin (1870- 1924) describe religion and why?

A

Lenin (1870- 1924) describes religion as a ‘spiritual gin’ where the ruling class use religion to manipulate the masses and keep them from uniting against the ruling class.

45
Q

Religion’s impact on the power of the dominant class (Marx), with an example

A

Religion also legitimates power and privilege of the dominant class by making their position appear to be divinely ordained.

e.g. the 16th century Divine Rights of the King idea believed that the king represents God on Earth, disobedience is illegal and sinful challenge to God’s authority.

46
Q

What is alienation (Marx 1844) with an example using the working class

A

Alienation is becoming separated from or losing control over something that you produces or created.
For instance, under capitalism where it exists most, workers are alienated as they have no control and ownership of what they produce.

47
Q

Religion ‘is the ____ of people’ meaning

A

Religion: ‘is the opium of people’. It acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation, but not its cause.

The promise of an afterlife masks the problem of exploitation, as religion is a distorted view of the world.

48
Q

3

Limitations of marxist theories of religion

A
  • Marx shows how religion masks exploitation and creates false consciousness, but ignores positive functions of religion like psychological adjustment to misfortune. Neo-Marxists see some forms of religion as assistance to developing class consciousness
  • Some Marxists like Althusser (1971) reject alienation as being unscientific and based on a romantic idea of having a ‘true self’. This makes it an inadequate basis for theory of religion.
  • Religion doesn’t effectively control the whole population. Abercrombie, Hill and Turner (2015) argue than in a pre-capitalist society, Christianity had limited impact on peasants.
49
Q

Use key terms to outline key ideas of feminist theories of religion

A

Feminists see society as patriarchal. It perpetuates this inequality and legitimates female subordination (women’s inferiority).

50
Q

4 evidences of patriarchy

A

1- religious organisations
2- places of worship
3- sacred texts
4- religious laws and customs

51
Q

How do religious organisations promote patriarchy?

A

These are mainly male dominated despite women participating more than men. For instance, Orthodox Judaism forbid women to become priests.

52
Q

What is women’s marginalisation according to Karen Armstrong (1993)?

A

Occurs when women denied access to areas of society.

53
Q

What is emancipation of women according to Woodhead (2002)?

A

As the economic status and independence of women rises, women become less dependent on marriage and on a husband to provide for them, which leads to a corresponding increase in their social independence.

54
Q

Jean Holm (2001)

How do places of worship promote patriarchy?

A

Segregate sexes and marginalise women.

e.g. menstruating women cannot physically touch the Qur’an.
Jean Holm (2001) sees this as devaluation of women in religion.

55
Q

How do sacred texts involve patriarchy?

A
  • feature acts of male Gods
  • reflect anti-female steryotypes
  • e.g. how Eve caused humanity’s fall from grace and expulsion from the Garden of Eden (Judaeo-Christian story).
56
Q

How do religious laws and customs involve patriarchy?

A
  • women have fewer rights than men e.g. dress codes
57
Q

What do Karen Armstrong (1993) and Nawal El Saadawi (1980) argue about religious laws and customs?

A

-Karen Armstrong (1993) = early religions often placed women at the centre = earth mother goddesses and female priesthoods until 6k yrs ago

-Nawaal El Saadawi (1980) religion isn’t cause of subbordinating women, but patriarchy influencing it = male interpretors

58
Q

How does Linda Woodhead (2009) crtisise feminist explanations that equate religion with patriarchy and women oppression?

A
  • She argues that there are ‘religious forms of feminism’.
  • hijab wearer sees as liberation (Sophie gilliat-ray (2010) states some British women wear it to gain parental approval for further education.)
  • to gain status and respect for their roles within the family
  • Elisabeth Brusco (1995; 2012) found in Colombia, being part of a Pentecostal group can be empowering for women.
59
Q

What are piety movements?

A

. These are conservative movements that support traditional teachings about women’s role, modest dress, prayer and bible study. They can include Pentecostal and evangelical group

60
Q

Who is interested in piety movements?

A

Rachel Rinaldo (2010)

61
Q

What do liberal protestant organisations do?

A

These include the Unitarians and are often committed to gender equality and women having leading roles

62
Q

How are Unitarians and The Church of England liberal protset organisations?

A

For example, a third of unitarian ministers are female.

The Church of England also has female priests, since 1994 and female bishops since 2015. A third of its priests are female.

Sociology - Beliefs in Society (7 decks)

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