Topic 7 - Ideology and Science

Question 1

1. How do many sociologists view modern science, and what historical event is seen as its starting point?

Answer 1

Many sociologists see modern science as a product of the process of rationalization that began with the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century.

Question 2

How has science impacted society over the last few centuries?

Answer 2

Science has achieved medical advancements, transformed daily life in terms of transport, communications, work, and leisure, and revolutionized economic productivity and living standards.

Question 3

What is the ‘faith in science,’ and what challenges have somewhat dimmed this faith?

Answer 3

The ‘faith in science’ is a belief that science can ‘deliver the goods.’
Challenges such as pollution, global heating, and weapons of mass destruction have caused concerns.

Question 4

According to Sir Karl Popper, what principle governs the practice of science?

Answer 4

Science is governed by the principle of falsificationism, where theories are open to scrutiny, criticism, and testing by others.

Question 5

What are the four norms that guide science, known as CUDOS norms, according to Robert K. Merton?

Answer 5

Communism (sharing knowledge), Universalism (objective criteria for truth), Disinterestedness (pursuit of knowledge for its own sake), Organized Scepticism (openness to questioning and criticism).

Question 6

How does Kuhn describe the role of paradigms in scientific knowledge?

Answer 6

A mature science is based on shared assumptions called a paradigm, which guides scientists’ understanding, methods, and interpretations.

Question 7

According to interpretivist sociologists, how is scientific knowledge created?

Answer 7

Scientific knowledge is socially constructed, shaped by social groups, shared theories (paradigms), and the instruments used.

Question 8

What does the ethnomethodologist Steve Woolgar emphasize about scientific interpretation?

Answer 8

Scientists interpret evidence from observations and experiments to make sense of it, forming theories or explanations.

Question 9

How do Marxism and feminism view scientific knowledge?

Answer 9

Marxism and feminism see scientific knowledge as serving the interests of dominant groups, driven by capitalist or patriarchal agendas.

Question 10

What is the postmodernist perspective on scientific knowledge, according to Lyotard?

Answer 10

Postmodernists view science as a meta-narrative falsely claiming to possess the truth, serving dominant discourses and capitalist interests.

Question 11

What is a basic definition of ideology?

Answer 11

A worldview or a set of ideas and values, a belief system.

Question 12

What are some negative aspects associated with the term “ideology”?

Answer 12

• Distorted, false, or mistaken ideas about the world.
• Ideas that conceal the interests of a particular group or justify their privileges.
• Ideas that prevent change by misleading people about their true interests or position.
• A self-sustaining belief system that is irrational and closed to criticism.

Question 13

How does Marxism view society in terms of classes?

Answer 13

Society is divided into a minority capitalist ruling class and a majority working class.

Question 14

What is the role of ruling-class ideology in Marxism?

Answer 14

Ruling-class ideology legitimizes the status quo and prevents change by creating a false consciousness among workers.

Question 15

What are some examples of ideas found in ruling-class ideology?

Answer 15

• Equality goes against “human nature.”
• Victim-blaming theories about poverty.
• Racist ideas that divide and control different ethnic groups.

Question 16

How does Gramsci extend Marx’s ideas about ideology?

Answer 16

• He introduces the concept of hegemony, where working-class consciousness challenges ruling-class ideology.
• Gramsci emphasizes that workers have a dual consciousness from their own experiences and struggles.

Question 17

According to Abercrombie et al (2015), what factors may keep workers from rebelling?

Answer 17

Economic factors like the fear of unemployment.

Question 18

How does Benedict Anderson view the concept of a nation?

Answer 18

A nation is an “imagined community,” not a real community.

Question 19

Why does Marxism consider nationalism a form of false class consciousness?

Answer 19

Nationalism divides the international working class by making workers identify more with their own country’s capitalists.

Question 20

How do functionalists view nationalism?

Answer 20

Nationalism functions as a secular civil religion, uniting individuals into a larger community.

Question 21

According to Gellner, what role does nationalism play in modern society?

Answer 21

Nationalism creates communication between strangers and enables economic and social cooperation.

Question 22

What is Karl Mannheim’s distinction between ideological thought and utopian thought?

Answer 22

• Ideological thought justifies maintaining the status quo.
• Utopian thought justifies social change and envisions an alternative society.

Question 23

What does Karl Mannheim suggest as a solution to ideological conflicts?

Answer 23

Creating a free-floating intelligentsia detached from specific groups.
In Mannheim’s view, the solution is therefore to ‘detach’ the intellectuals from the social groups they represent and create a non-aligned or free-floating intelligentsia standing above the conflict. Freed from representing the interests of this or that group, they would be able to synthesise elements of the different partial ideologies and utopias so as to arrive at a ‘total’ worldview that represented the interests of society as a whole.

Question 24

How do feminists view patriarchal ideology’s role in gender inequality?

Answer 24

Feminists see gender inequality as the fundamental division in society and patriarchal ideology as playing a key role in legitimating it.

Question 25

How has science been used to justify gender inequality?

Answer 25

• Ideas from science have been used to exclude women from education and positions.

Question 26

What are some examples of patriarchal ideologies in religious beliefs and practices?

Answer 26

• Ideas that women are ritually impure or unclean due to childbirth or menstruation.

Question 27

What are examples of religious beliefs that challenge the subordination of women?

Answer 27

• Pre-monotheistic matriarchal religions and goddesses in Hinduism.