Topic 2 - Religion and Social Change

Question 1

2 ways in which religion can be seen as a conservative force

Answer 1

1. It upholds traditional beliefs, like defending traditional customs, institutions, moral views etc.
   
   2. It functions to conserve or preserve things as they are. Meaning it works to stabilise society

Question 2

Example of traditional conservative beliefs

Answer 2

e.g. Catholic Church forbids abortion and gay marriage.

Question 3

Example of patriarchal domestic division of labour

Answer 3

Church of England marriage ceremony from 1602 - bride vows to ‘love, honour and obey’ whilst groom vows to ‘love and honour’.

Question 4

Max Weber (1905) studied…

Answer 4

… The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

Question 5

Calvenism

Answer 5

a form of Protestantism founded by John Calvin during the Reformation

Question 6

What did calvinism help do in Northern Eurpoe in 16th and 17th centuries

Answer 6

Helped to bring about major social change esp. the emergence of modern capitalism

Question 7

Spirit..

Weber’s argument on past vs modern capitalism, and what does he call it?

Answer 7

Past societies used capitalism for greed and wealth for luxury consumption, but modern capitalism is based on systematic, efficient rational pursuit for its own sake, rather than for consumption

Question 8

What does it mean by the spirit of capitalism having an ‘elective affinity’?

Answer 8

A term used by Max Weber to describe the relationship between Protestantism and capitalism, to the Calvinists’ believes and attitudes.

Question 9

3 distinct beliefs of calvinism

Answer 9

1. Predestination
2. Divine transcendence
3. Ascetism

Question 10

in calvenism

What is predestination?

Answer 10

God predetermined which souls would be saved from birth - the elect. God’s decision is already made and cannot be altered through deeds e.g. pilgrimages or prayer, as Lutheran Protestants believed.

Question 11

in calvenism

Divine transcendence?

Answer 11

God was so far above and beyond this world and so incomparably greater than any mortal.

Calvinists feel ‘an unprecedented inner loneliness’.

When combined with the idea of predestination, they have a salvation panic. The don’t know if they had been chosen to be saved.

Question 12

in calvenism

Ascetism?

3 features and example

Answer 12

abstinence, self-disciple and self-denial

e.g. monks lead an ascetic existence, refraining from luxury, wearing simple clothes and avoiding excess to devote themselves to God.

Question 13

2 advantage to work ethic for calvinists

Answer 13

1. cope with their anxieties about salvation
2. reinvested it in their businesses, which grew and prospered

thus brought in capitalism

Question 14

Compare Hinduism, Confucianism and Calvinism in the 16th and 17th centuries

Answer 14

• Like Calvinism, Hinduism was an ascetic religion, enunciating the material world. But they favoured other-worldly asceticism, directed towards the spiritual world.
  • In ancient China, Confucianism was this-world for other reasons, not through being ascetic.

Question 15

5 evaluation points

Evaluate Weber’s ideas towards religion as a force for change

Answer 15

• Weber’s work - ‘ a debate with Marx’s ghost’. Marx believes economic or material factors drive force of change, but Weber argues it needs specific factors and beliefs too
  • Karl Kautsky (1927) argues that Weber overestimates the role of ideas and underestimated economic factors on capitalism. He argues capitalism came before Calvinism.
  • R.H.Tawney (1926) argues that technology caused capitalism, not religious ideas.
  • Capitalism didn’t develop in every country where there were Calvinists, like Scotland. But Gordon Marshal (1982) argues that this was from a lack of skill and labour, supporting how materials and religion both play a part according to Weber.
  • Others argue Calvinists were one of the first capitalists as they were rejected from political office and many professions by law, so relied on businesses. But Weberians argue that other religious minorities were also excluded but didn’t become successful capitalists.

Question 16

Who was interested in religion and social protest?

Answer 16

Steve Bruce (2003)

Question 17

Outline the American Civil Rights Movement

Answer 17

• 1950s to 1960s
• slavery ended in 1865 but blacks still were denied legal and political rights
• e.g. segregated amneties (buses, shops, toilets)
• began in 1955 when Rosa Parks sat at the front of the bus
• in 1964 segregation was outlawed
• Bruce describes the Black Clergy (monks of the Russian Orthodox Church) as the backbone of the movement, led by Dr Martin Luther King
• Its role was decisive- giving support an moral legitimacy to civil right activists.
• churches provided meeting places for stuff like hymn singing source of unity in the face of oppression
• Black Clergy shamed the white into changing the law by appealing to their shared Christian values of equality
• Though the impact on Southern states was limited, it reached a wide audience

Question 18

4 ways civil rights movement used religion as an ideological resource

MCAT

Answer 18

1. Taking the moral high ground
2. Channelling dissent
3. Acting as honest broker
4. Mobilising public opinion

Question 19

1. Taking the moral high ground

Answer 19

Black clergy pointed out the hypocrisy of White clergy who preached ‘love thy neighbour’ but supported racial segregation

Question 20

Channelling dissent

Answer 20

Religion provides channels to express political dissent. E.g. Martin Luther King’s funeral was a rallying point for the civil rights cause

Question 21

Acting as honest broker

Answer 21

Churches can provide a context for negotiating change because they are often respected by both sides in a conflict and seen as standing above ‘mere politics’.

Question 22

Mobilising public opinion

Answer 22

Black churches in the South successfully campaigned for support across the whole of America.

Question 22

“other-worldly asceticism” meaning

“this-worldly asceticism” meaning

Which do calvinists adopt?

Answer 22

“other-worldly asceticism” - leaving worldly life and joining a monastery or convent to serve God

“this-worldly asceticism” - glorify God by working diligently in their secular occupations

Calvinists are this-worldy, see work as a religious duty. Idleness was considered a sin.

Question 23

Does Bruce see religion as becoming involved in secular struggle thru civil rights movement?

Answer 23

Yes

Question 24

How did CRM achieve its aims?

Answer 24

• shared same values as wider society
• shaming those in power

Question 25

Outline The New Christian Right

Answer 25

• politically and morally conservative, Protestant fundamentalist movement.
• gained prominence since the 1960s due to its opposition to the liberalising of American society
• take America ‘back to God’
• illegalise abortion, homosexuality, divorce and gay marriage
• teaching of ‘creationism’
• it’s made effective use of the media and networking i.e. televangelism (where church-owned television stations raise funds and broadcast programmes aimed at making converts and recruiting new members.)

Question 26

NCR

Define creationism

Answer 26

The view that the Bible’s account of creation is literally true

Question 27

NCR

Define televangelism

Answer 27

Where church-owned television stations raise funds and broadcast programmes aimed at making converts and recruiting new members

Question 28

2 reasons for unsuccessfulness of NCR aims

Answer 28

• Its campaigners find it hard to cooperate with those from other religious groups, even when campaigning on the same issue i.e. abortion. (own additional research)

Reasons for this include:
( - Theological differences
- Differing priorities
- Different strategies
- Fear of domination
- Historical tensions)

- It lacks widespread support and has met with strong opposition from groups who stand for freedom of choice

Question 29

Bruce describes it as a failed movement for change despite its enormous publicity because…

(4 reasons)

Answer 29

• American society having liberal and democratic values
• very few support the idea of theocracy (rule by religious leaders).
• Americans are comfortable with legalising immoral activities, like pornography
• unwilling to accept other people’s definitions on how they should lead their lives

Question 30

What do Marxists mean by ‘religious autonomy’?

Answer 30

This means they can be partly independent of the economic base of society. Meaning religion can sometimes be a force for change and stability and have a dual character.

Question 31

Marx sees religion as the ‘____ of a heartless world’ because…

Answer 31

heart of a heartless world’, suggesting that it can humanise a world made inhuman by exploitation, even if the comfort offered is illusory.

Question 32

Who proposed the idea that religion has a dual character and what does he mean?

Answer 32

Friedrich Engels (1895)

Although it inhibits change by disguising inequality, it may challenge the status quo (current situation).

For instance it sometimes preaches liberation from slavery.

Question 33

Who proposed the idea of ‘the principle of hope’ ?

Answer 33

Ernest Bloch (1959)

Question 34

What does the principle of hope mean?

Answer 34

Our dreams of a better life that contain images of utopia (the prefect world). These images can exhibit deceiving promises such as rewards in heaven. However they may help people see what needs to be changed in the world.

Religious beliefs +effective political organisation + leadership = social change.

Question 35

What are the aims of liberation theology and when and where did it emerge?

Answer 35

• catholic church in Latin America, 1960s
• strong commitment to the poor and opposition to the military dictatorships of the time

Question 36

3 factors that leas to liberation theology

Answer 36

• Deepening rural poverty and the growth of urban slums throughout Latin America.
  
  • Human right abuses following military take-overs, like torture and death squads murdering political opponents like in Argentina, Brazil and Chile.
  • Growing commitment among catholic priests to an ideology that supported the poor and opposed violation of human rights.

Question 37

‘base communities’ included activities to change status quo like…

Answer 37

… developing literacy programmes, education the poor about their situation, raising awareness and being supportive

Question 38

What did Pope John Paul II (1980s) do which caused the loss of the movement’’s influence?

Answer 38

He condemned liberation theory and told priests to focus on pastoral activities rather than political struggle

Question 39

Liberation theology

What does Casanoava (1994) emphasise?

Answer 39

it played a vital role in resisting state terror and brining about democracy

Question 40

2 Neo-Marxists on religion always being a conservative force

Answer 40

Otto Maduro (1982) - sees it as a revolutionary force that can bring change, i.e. the liberation theology’s ideas radicalised the Catholic clergy in defence of peasants and workers, making them see that serving the poor was a christian duty

Lowy (2005) - questions Marx’s view that religion always leads to social inequality

Question 41

Who contrasts liberation theology and pentecostal churches?

Answer 41

David Lehmann (1966)

Question 42

option

How does David Lehmann (1966) contrast liberation theology and pentecostal churches?

Answer 42

• Liberation theology offers an ‘option FOR the poor’ of community conciousness raising and campaigning for social change led by ‘revolutionary priests and nuns in their jeans and scandals’.
  
  • Pentecostalism offers an ‘option OF the poor’ for individuals to become less poor through their own efforts led by church pastors, ‘uniformly respectable in their suits, white shirts and black ties.’

Liberation theology = radical solution
Pentecostalism = conservative solution

Question 43

What are millenarian movements?

Answer 43

are social and religious movements that emerge around the belief in an imminent (near) and transformative event that will bring about a new age or era of profound change. The term “millennium” refers to a symbolic period of a thousand years, often associated with an idealized, utopian state or the return of a messianic figure.

Question 44

Jesus’ return to Earth impact according to Worsley (1968)

Answer 44

• expect an imminent world transformation by supernatural means
• will create a heaven on Earth.
• transformation will be collective as the whole group will be saved.
• such movements largely appeal to the poor as they promise immediate improvement.

Question 45

Who was interested in millenarian movements?

Answer 45

Peter Worsley (1968)

Question 46

Did European colonialism led to economic exploitation and cultural and religious domination?

Answer 46

Yes

Question 47

Outline cargo cults

Answer 47

• The islanders felt wrongfully deprived when ‘cargo’ (material goods) arrived in the islands for the colonists.
  
  • A series of cargo cults sprang up during the 19th and 20th centuries asserting that the cargo was meant for the islanders but had been diverted by the colonists for themselves, and that this unjust social order was about to be overturned
  • These movements often led to widespread unrest that threatened colonial rule.
  • Worsley notes that the movements combined elements of traditional beliefs with elements of Christianity — such as ideas about a heaven where the suffering of the righteous will be rewarded, Christ’s imminent second coming to earth, the Day of Judgment and punishment of the wicked.
  • He describes the movements as pre-political — they used religious ideas and images, but they united indigenous populations in mass movements that spanned tribal divisions.
  • Many of the secular nationalist leaders and parties that were to overthrow colonial rule in the 1950s and 1960s developed out of millenarian movements.
    Similarly, from a Marxist perspective, Engels argues that they represent the first awakening of ‘proletarian self-consciousness’

Question 48

What’s hegemony according to Antonio gramsci (1971)?

Answer 48

Hegemony refers to the way that the ruling class use ideas such as religion maintain control.

through the consent and voluntary acceptance of the subordinate classes, who internalize the dominant ideology, making the social order appear natural and legitimate.

Question 49

Counter hegemony

Answer 49

hegemony is never guaranteed as society could form an alternate vision of how society should be organised - a counter hegemony.

Gramsci sees religion as having a dual character that can challenge or support the ruling class. Popular forms of religion can help workers see through the ruling-class hegemony by offering a better fairer world.

Question 50

Some clergy can act as organic intellectuals meaning..

Answer 50

leaders, educators to support working-class organisations like trade unions.

Question 51

Who applies Gramsci’s ideas through two case studies: coal miners vs textile workers in Kentucky from 1920s to 1930s?

Answer 51

Billings (1990)

Question 52

Differences between coal miners and textile workers beliefs (in terms of status quo)?

Answer 52

Coal miners struggled for recognition of their working conditions, but textile workers accepted the status quo.

Question 53

Differences in levels of militancy can be understood in terms of hegemony and the role of religion. Billings identifies three ways:

Answer 53

• Leadership: miners benefited from leadership of organic intellectuals - many of which were trade unionists themselves
  
  • Organisation: miners used independent churches to hold meeting and organise, whereas textile workers lacked such spaces
• Support: churches kept miners’ moral high with supportive sermons, prayer meetings and group singing. But textile workers met with opposition from local church leaders

Question 54

Differences in levels of militancy can be understood in terms of hegemony and the role of religion. Billings identifies three ways:

Answer 54

• Leadership: miners benefited from leadership of organic intellectuals - many of which were trade unionists themselves
  
  • Organisation: miners used independent churches to hold meeting and organise, whereas textile workers lacked such spaces
  • Support: churches kept miners’ moral high with supportive sermons, prayer meetings and group singing. But textile workers met with opposition from local church leaders