Topic 2 - EQ4 Flashcards
1
Q
Why does a contrast have to be drawn between active and relict glacial and periglacial landscapes found in (high) polar latitudes and high altitudes?
A
Whereas nearly all of the former can be classified as true wilderness as they are remote, possess a harsh physical environment and carry little or no population , except for small groups of indigenous people or groups exploiting their resources short term,the latter relict areas are often more densely populated as they provide many more opportunities for economic development and employment, for example farming, forestry and tourism.
2
Q
How do the qualities of the wilderness provide opportunities for spiritual refreshment?
A
They provide spiritual refreshment and enjoyment for many travellers and explorers who wish to experience pristine, almost wholly natural environments and almost always untouched by humans. Wildernesses have inspired an enormous range of people to write, paint and communicate their feelings and experiences - for example wilderness poets such as Robert W Service from Alaska, polar explorer John Muir or the legendary David Attenborough.
3
Q
How have some areas of wilderness lost their pristine quality?
A
Relict environments of the summits of Snowdon or the.Cairngorms, both reached by mountain railways, only have elements of pristine quality; they have lost their innate remoteness to large quantities of tourists.
4
Q
Why are wilderness areas, such as polar environments, hold value due to scientific reasons?
A
Environmentalists and ecologists would point this out about wilderness areas.
-They need to maintain a gene pool of wild organisms to ensure the maintenance of genetic variety.
-The need to retain wilderness so that animal communities can remain in their natural environment, for example providing sanctuary for the migratory bird and anima, communities of the Alaskan North Slope.
-To use wholly natural communities that still exist as a control system for comparison with exploited, mismanaged areas elsewhere.
5
Q
What do scientists use the Arctic and Antarctic polar environments for?
A
Both artic and Antarctic polar environments have become ‘living labs’ for scientists. They have both similarities and significant differences in their research programmes.
6
Q
How do people benefit from goods and services provided by glacial environments?
A
Millions of people, who live far from any mountains, benefit from a wide range of goods and services provided by glacial environments, both relict and active. These include supplies of pure mountain water, timber (usually coniferous woodland), hydroelectric power for their homes, as well as the opportunity to enjoy beautiful mountain environments such as the Alps or Himalayas for recreation and leisure.
About 8% of the worlds population live in polar and mountainous and upland areas, many of which have been glaciated in the past or still contain some glaciers albeit mostly diminishing in volume.
7
Q
How do glacial environments hold economic value for farming?
A
Within mountainous regions in developing nations, there may be limited transport links and access to essential supplies and markets may be poor; employment opportunities can also be limited. In countries such as Nepal, Bolivia, Ethiopia, the highlands are largely inhabited by indigenous communities who gain their living from subsistence farming. In Bolivia 70% of the population lives in the High Andes, growing crops such as potatoes, quinoa and beans to feed themselves, as well as rearing llamas and alpacas, yet they earn only 30% of the country’s GDP. Almost all of the 60% of Bolivias population that live below the poverty line are indigenous Indians living in the Altiplano of the Hugh Andes. The development of internet and mobile phones, leapfrogging old technology of landlines and cables, has revolutionised their lives, providing many opportunities for cottage industries such as weaving and knitting co-operatives, and eco-tourism.
8
Q
What is farming like in glaciated countries in developed areas?
A
In Alpine areas in developed countries, the agriculture in upland glaciated regions is primarily pastoral because of the above average precipitation, rugged terrain with steep slopes and stony, shallow soils, which together make cultivation difficult. In the truly Alpine areas transhumance is a traditional pattern of livestock management; the farming system takes advantage of the seasonal climate cycle - I’m summer animals are grazed at high altitudes on Alpine meadows, which become free from snow and provide high-quality grass. At the same time the grass in the valley bottom can be made into hay for winter feed. In the snowy winters the animals are brought down and housed near the farm houses and are fed on hay or graze the lower pastures.
9
Q
How do glaciated landscapes provide economic value through forestry?
A
Depending on farm prices and the degree of government support systems (such as EU rural payments), hill farming is an increasing struggle in many regions and uplands are now increasingly used for forestry (silviculture). In the UK this is carried out by the Forestry Commission and private investors, with the main type of tree being non-native, quick growing conifers, such as Sitka spruce, grown for softwood timber, wood pulp and even paper. Conifers tolerate harsh climates and acidic soils that would not even be suitable for other land uses.
10
Q
What is silviculture?
A
The planting of trees for commercial forestry
11
Q
How do glacial environments provide economical value through mining and quarrying?
A
Glacial erosion plays an important role in removing regolith (loose overlying soil) and vegetation to expose economically valuable rocks. In many active or relict areas there are mines and quarries of mineral deposits are ores, as well as rocks such as skates as many of the glaciated mountains are made from igneous and metamorphic rocks. In lowland areas, outwash deposits from the Pleistocene Ice Sheets provide a very important source of sand and gravel for the building industry, pre-sorted by meltwater into sands and gravels to be sold as aggregates, making them very useful for making concrete.
12
Q
How do glacial environments provide economic value through hydroelectricity?
A
HEP is a major use of water derived from glaciers. Both Norway and New Zealand derive over 90% of their electricity from this source. In most cases either a natural ribbon lake or dam and reservoir in a glaciated valley provide the HEP. Switzerland has over 500 HEP stations, producing some 70% of its electricity. Clearly HEP is a renewable ‘green’ source, although there are issues with both the reliability of the water supply and environmental concerns over damming of rivers. In mountain settlements in developing nations, such as Nepal or Bolivia, micro-hydros can revolutionise the quality of life in many villages.
13
Q
Background info on Antarctica….
A
Antarctica was designated a continent of peace and science as a result of the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and subsequent protocols. In the International Polar Year of 2008-09, the UN Environment Programme reports that 60 countries and more than 10,000 researchers took part in scientific research there costing over $1.5billion.
14
Q
What are some of the planned/ongoing researches by international Antarctic Scientists?
A
-Understanding global change - past, present and future by looking at ice cores.
-Researching ‘life on the edge’ to explore how ecosystems cope with intensely harsh conditions.
-Investigating subglacial Lake Vostok and other lakes beneath the ice sheet.
-Developing sustainable food webs in the Southern Ocean ecosystem. In particular, looking at changing impacts on the various tropic levels such as the decline in krill, key component of the Antarctic marine food web.
-Studying the earths upper atmosphere and its links to the lower atmosphere and the earths climate - taking advantage of unpolluted atmosphere above the continent.
-Understanding how the Antarctic ice is melting, in terms of scale and pace, using satellites and field data.
15
Q
How do glaciated environments provide economic value through tourism?
A
-The industry has seen tremendous growth in recent decades, which has bought many economic benefits to mountain regions.
-Visitors are attracted to scenery or present day and relict glacial landscapes.
-A huge range of activities are also possible: hill walking, climbing, mountaineering and skiing. These have led to whole regions capitalising on their tourist potential.
-Glaciated regions are increasingly visited for the glaciers themselves, which puts pressure on some very fragile landscape.
16
Q
Why must the economic value of any mountain tourism require careful management?
A
The benefits require careful management so that they are not outweighed by environmental costs to the scenery and to the culture of the local people. It’s a very fine balance. So much depends on the fragility of the landscape and the nature and intensity of the economic activities.
17
Q
How do glacial and periglacial landscapes hold ecological and environmental value?
A
They make a very significant contribution to the world’s life support systems. Approximately 75%of all the freshwater of the world is locked up in ice - so glaciers contain nearly 2% of water overall. Glacially eroded valleys in many mountainous regions for, natural hollows for water collection, forming ribbon lakes, or can be dammed for reservoirs, for example in the English Lake District.
18
Q
Why are glaciers a valuable source of water for irrigation?
A
They produce most water in the late spring and summer, which is often the hot, dry season when other sources dry up. For example, in the USA the Arapaho Glacier currently produces about 260 million gallons of drinking water per day for the city of Boulder, Colorado, as well as irrigating huge areas of crops such as fruit and grapes. Glaciers have a very cool and beautiful image and this is used to promote sales of bottled water.
Being composed of freshwater, icebergs also offer a potential water resource, but there are numerous complications even in their potential use.
19
Q
How is permafrost and tundra useful for soil carbon storage?
A
The extensive areas of permafrost and tundra peat are major areas for soil carbon storage . Currently the Arctic lands remain a weak carbon sink, meaning that more carbon is added each year than is lost. However, as permafrost melts as a result of positive feedback within the climate warming process, ancient carbon being released, especially via methane emissions, thus upsetting the balance in the system.
20
Q
What are carbon sinks?
A
These are a natural or artificial reservoir that absorbs more carbon than it releases, leading to carbon accumulation.
21
Q
What is biodiversity?
A
This is a measure of the variety of organisms present at a particular location
22
Q
What is primary productivity?
A
This is the rate at which energy is converted by photosynthesis; it has a major influence on the level of biodiversity.
23
Q
What does permafrost cause to soil’s fragility?
A
The presence of permafrost in most areas in the soil increases their fragility. In the lower Arctic latitudes (around 70 to 75°N) there is a continuous cover of ground vegetation, with sedges and mosses in the wetter hollows and scattered dwarf trees on the lower ridges. Elsewhere heaths, grasses and rapidly flowering plants flourish. At higher latitudes 75 to 80 °N) and higher altitudes, polar desert conditions prevail, but a small range of plants survive in favourable sheltered locations such as the purple saxifrage and arctic poppy.
24
Q
How do tundra plants have to adapt?
A
They have to adapt to low temperatures, drying winds and snow blasts in winter blizzards. The system has low biodiversity and low primary productivity and the low nutrient content of the Arctic soils, leading to very weak nutrient cycling in dynamic equilibrium with the underlying permafrost, so any melting will have dramatic effects.
25
How can human activities impact permafrost?
Human activities van have dramatic impacts, both directly, such as vegetation being removed during the building of roads and infrastructure, and indirectly through pollution. Toxic chemicals/acid rain from coal mines and metal smelting in the Kola Peninsula lead to the contamination and melting of the permafrost and the formation of thermokarst conditions. A growing threat is the potential for oil spills as Arctic oilfields are developed on the Alaskan North Slope and Russian Siberia, controversially in areas of outstanding ecological value, such as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) where permission has just been given to drill (2015) amid huge controversy as it affects the lives of the native peoples as well as the environment and ecology.
26
What is an example of Tourist Activities in the Swiss alps?
Jungfrau railway to Jungfraujoch (3454m); access by road tunnel; allows all year tourism
27
What is an example of glacial tourism on the Mer de Glace, French Alps?
Cable car to Aiguille du Midi for glacier viewing and hiking; visit to ice cave beneath glacier.
28
How is there glacial tourism at the Everest base camp and ascent, Himalayas, Nepal?
Trekking to Everest base camp; huge pressure on Everest itself as permitted numbers are allowed to rise and concentrated during a relatively short season.
29
How is the provision of goods a value of polar ecosystems?
Fisheries - They’re important for Southern Ocean and Arctic fisheries for local and international use.
Wild foods - They allow seasonal hunting of seals for indigenous tribes; and the hunting of whales before it was banned.
Genetic resources - Important genetic resources exist on land and sea even though productivity is low; many species are endemic and some may not have been discovered yet.
Fresh water - Huge stores of fresh water in ice caps and glaciers.
30
How is the ecosystem service of regulation an important ecosystem service in polar ecosystems?
Carbon sequestration- Large stores of carbon are found in peat and Arctic soils
Climate regulation- Warming could release large volumes of methane and carbon dioxide. Artic and Antarctic play crucial roles in regulating the Earth’s climate by working to cool the planet (via ocean currents and atmosphere movement).
31
What is the value of polar ecosystems in cultural terms?
Aesthetic value - largely unspoilt pristine wildernesses to be enjoyed by travellers.
Spiritual value - Some Arctic indigenous people practise animism, giving the landscape ecosystems a unique cultural and spiritual significance.
32
Do glacial environments face natural risks?
Both current glaciated and relict upland regions are hazardous because of the high incidence of avalanches, rock falls, debris slides and flooding. These hazards have the capacity to develop into disasters because of the rising human vulnerability in these areas. This has resulted from increasing population of outdoor sports and adventure tourism, which out more people at risk.
33
Why do avalanches occur?
An avalanche risk exists when shear stress exceeds shear strength of a mass of snow located on a slope. The shear strength of a snow pack is related to its density and temperature. Snow avalanches result from two different types of snow pack failure, loose snow and slab avalanches.
34
What are lose snow avalanches?
These act rather like dry sand, a small amount of snow slips out of place and starts to move down slope.
35
What are slab avalanches?
These occur when a strongly cohesive layer of snow breaks away from a weaker underlying layer. A run of higher temperatures followed by refreezing creates ice crusts, which provide a source of instability. Slabs can be as large as 100,000m^3 and can bring down 100x the initial volume of snow and cause huge danger.
36
What are the social costs of avalanches?
While avalanches tend to follow well-known tracks and can often be predicted, they are nevertheless a significant hazard, usually killing around 200 people per year with most of these deaths in the Alps or the Rockies.
The 2015 Nepalese earthquake set off many ice and rock avalanches that killed some members of expeditions at Everest Base Camp.
37
What is a Lahar?
This is a Japanese word that describes a mixture of water, mud and rock fragments flowing down the slopes of a volcano.
38
What risks do Lahars hold?
Some of the most-destructive volcanic hazard events are caused by lahars. The second-deadliest eruption recorded in historic times resulted from lahars generated by the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia. Volcanic activity caused large-scale glacier melting, producing a huge lahar. It rushed down the Lagunillas Valley overwhelming the town of Armero, 50km downstream. With a mudflow deposit of 3-8m deep, it killed more than 23,000 people almost instantly.
39
What are glacial outburst floods?
Also known by the Icelandic term Jökulhluap. It is a powerful flood caused by the sudden discharge of a subglacial or ice moraine dammed lake. There is potential for an outburst flood whenever meltwater collects behind an ice or moraine obstruction.
40
What 6 ways can a glacial outburst flood be caused?
-Increased flotation of ice as water levels rise
-Overflow and melting of an ice dam - common in climate warming.
-Breakdown of an ice dam because of tectonic activity
-Irreversible overtopping of a moraine dam by large tsunami-style waves triggered by a snow/ice avalanche or landslide into a lake.
-Failure of moraine dam by slow melt of ice within it or removal of fine sediment from the moraine by underwater ‘piping’.
-Enlargement of pre-existing tunnels beneath an ice dam because of increased water pressure.
41
What are the threats of glacial floods to humans?
They are a huge threat to people and property in inhabited mountain valleys around the world. They may destroy the property tens or even hundreds of kilometres from their source, especially in areas with a long history of settlement, for example the Andes, European Alps and Himilayas.
42
Why is engineering needed in periglacial areas to deal with ice melt?
Periglacial areas experience widespread ground subsidence (downwards movement of the ground when water leaves the soils) when ground ice melts, which means that special engineering designs need to be developed when these areas, largely in northern Canada, Alaska and Siberia, are exploited for their resources.
43
Why are glacial outburst floods particularly frequent in Iceland?
These are particularly frequent in Iceland because of volcanic activity that generates both meltwater beneath glaciers and acts as a trigger for ice instability and the sudden release of meltwater. Heat from the Grímsvötn volcano beneath the Vatnajökull ice cap melts the ice and creates a subglacial lake with its cauldron. When this lake creates a critical size it forces its way through the subglacial tunnels and the lake drains catastrophically within hours, with total discharges between 0.5 and 3.5km squared, and every 3-6 years.
44
What was the eruption of Grímsvötn, Iceland 1996?
An eruption broke through the ice, sending up a huge ash column 10km high and melting a large quantity of ice. On 5th November the meltwater burst through the glacier with a massive peak discharge. It caused around US$15 million of infrastructure damage.
45
Do glacial environments face threats from human activity?
Yes, human activities can also degrade and damage fragile glacial and periglacial ecosystems. While continuous settlement in relict glaciated areas has traditionally been agriculturally inspired, within true polar environments this is not a feasible option. In polar lands, settlements tend to be nucleated and surrounded by bast areas of nothingness. These settlements tend to be built for resource exploitation by outsiders: for whaling, sealing and fishing, or for mining.
Furthermore, there are inevitable issues from pollution and toxic waste from these often hastily built urban areas. Also, the exploitation often leads to conflicts with the way of life of native peoples. Regular contact from outside has progressively reduced the chances for the survival of the land traditional culture groups (e.g the Sami in Lapland or Inuit in Greenland).
46
What is polar tourism?
This is one frequent example of a threat to glacial environments. Romanticised, over centuries, travel to the polar areas - for so long the stuff of Amundsen and Shackleton ‘daring dos’ - now increasingly represents an expensive leisure activity suitable for all, with the only barrier being cost. In the late Victorian era it was an adventure for wealthy travel seekers, but now the Antarctic welcomes around 40,000 tourists a year.
47
What has caused the explosion of polar tourism?
Annual figures for the increasingly accessible Arctic, where tourism has long since been relied upon by local communities, have doubled since the early 1990s, from 1 million tourists to over 2 million in 2014. Factors such as climate warming have lengthened the summer season, especially for ships with ice-strengthened hulls, and winter activities such as snowmobiling and husky sledging, as well as viewing the Northern lights, have also been developed.
Most visitors arrive by ship, sailing up the Norwegian coast to the North Cape where the recently built centre receives over 1 million visitors per year. Over 50 cruise ships visited Svalbard in 2015. The limits are currently only controlled by the limited number of feeder flights. The main issue is the huge increase in the number of landing sites (now nearly 200), which could spread the damage to uninhabited pristine areas.
48
What has been the affect of polar tourism on Arctic economies?
Since 1990, Iceland, Greenland and northeastern Canada have also enjoyed very strong growth rates, especially from cruise ship tourism; with Greenland up 400% since 2004. Alaska too receives over a million passengers. For middle class Americans, ‘doing Alaska’ by car or cruise ship is a rite of passage. For this reason numbers have had to be controlled at pressure points such as Denali National Park and Glacier Bay National Park.
49
What are the affects of wear on ecosystems from humans hiking and biking?
Damage to plants:
-Smaller leaf and stem area
-Less photosynthesis
-Less growth
-Less water drawn up through plants and nutrients
Impacts of soil compaction:
-Fewer spaces in the soil
-Less air in the soil
-Fewer soil animals
-Fewer nutrients in the soil
-Fewer seeds germinate
-More difficult for roots to grow
50
What is phenology?
This is the study of the timing of natural events and phenomena such as the first day snowdrops appear, in relation to climate.
51
Why do glaciated highland areas suffer from soil erosion?
This occurs especially when sloped are exposed, for example by clear-cut tree felling or other examples of deforestation, as this exposes the fragile ecosystem to the weather. Soil erosion is a major problem in many Andean areas as the slopes are often over-cultivated or overgrazed, largely because of pressure on the land to provide subsistence for growing populations.
52
What is some evidence for glacial retreat?
-Areas in Peru and Bolivia covered by glaciers has shrank 25% in the last 30 years.
-Around 95% of Himalayan glaciers are in rapid retreat; for example, the Khumbu Glacier (at the base of Everest) has retreated over 5km since 1953.
-On the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, all the glaciers have lost between 25 and 75% of their mass since 1850.
53
Are there examples of glaciers expanding?
Yes, and one of these is that of the maritime glaciers in Scandinavia. Here, the elements of changing precipitation have contributed to a more positive mass balance.
54
What positive feedback cycle is amplifying the process of glacial retreat?
Less ice -> loss of albedo -> reduced reflection -> more atmospheric warming -> more melting.
The destabilising effect of climate warming can be looked at in two very significant contexts - changes to the hydrological cycle and changes in sea level.
55
How are water supplies diminishing in mountainous areas?
In mountainous areas such as the Andes and Himalayas, glacial meltwater feeds rivers; changes in discharge will have knock-on effects on sediment yield and water quality.
Rivers in Asia, such as Yangtze and Ganges are all fed by Himalayan glacial meltwater. The loss of a steady supply has huge implications for the population powerhouses of China and India, both of which are emerging as superpowers with almost insatiable demands for water for development of both their people’s quality of life and their economies.
56
Who is dependent on glacial meltwater in Western China’s semi-desert?
The 350 million farmers are dependent on water which is supplied from the glaciers of the Tibetan plateau, an area experiencing high amounts of glacial thinning. Water shortages could affect 538 million people - some 42% of China’s people - hence the development of massive hard-engineering solutions for water security such as dams, and the South-North water transfer scheme.
57
What are the social implications of India’s reduction in glacial meltwater?
The reduction of glacial meltwater flowing into the Ganges-Brahmaputra system is likely to result in at least 500 million people facing water shortages, with nearly 40% of India’s irrigated land being affected.
58
What are the approaches to the management of glaciated landscapes?
-Do nothing
-Business as usual
-Sustainable exploitation
-Sustainable management
-Comprehensive conservation
-Total protection
59
What is the ‘do nothing’ approach to managing glacial landscapes?
It allows multiple economic uses to flourish. The ethos would be to allow cold environments to be exploited for whatever resources are in demand and profitable. This approach might be supported by governments at local or national level for revenues, or by some local people, for example chambers of commerce or trade unions for employment potential. It way also be used by developers such as industrialists and globalised TNCs, for example energy and mining companies.
60
What is the ‘business as usual’ approach to managing glacial landscapes?
This is a very similar approach to the ‘do nothing’ approach. It involves leaving the area as it currently stands, but it might include aspects of pre existing sustainability such as self-regulation on environmental issues. All TNCs have pre-existing environmental policies as part of their mission statements. With the exception of conservationists, most players are content with the status quo.
61
What is the ‘sustainable exploitation’ approach to managing glacial landscapes?
This can be regarded and the middle way. It targets development for profit but with the insistence on mandatory environmental regulation, for instance waste disposal. It can be channelled to provide distinctive benefits for the community, for example the development of fishing for local communities or sustainability hunting. In theory it takes into account the vested interests of many players at a variety of scales, but it relies on considerable compromise for it to be successful.
62
What is sustainable management?
This attempts to develop an area in a way that uses resources for the benefit of the existing community without destroying the environment but, at the same time, conserving resources for future generations. The four facets of the sustainability quadrant are very difficult to achieve, especially in cold environments.
63
What are the 4 parts of the sustainability quadrant?
-Futurity
-Greenness
-Pro-poor
-Bottom-up community involvement
64
Why are there tensions about the exploitation of glacial environments?
There are tension forces between the need to conserve fragile, vulnerable environments yet at the same time to exploit vital resources for the economic wellbeing of future generations. This is very clearly shown by the controversy over Alaskan oil where there is a clash between environmentalists, local indigenous people, state and national governments, and oil companies.
Many NGOs, such as the World Wise Fund for Nature (WWF), favour sustainable development as an approach as ultimately it could be a good way to conserve the landscape and support indigenous communities.
65
What are the 3 legs of the stool of sustainability?
-Environmental
-Social
-Economic
66
What is comprehensive conservation?
This aims to protect and conserve glacial and periglacial environments as wilderness, especially where still in a pristine condition. Only carefully regulated ecotourism or organic eco-farming is likely to be favoured by environmentalists and those allowed to practice and enjoy it. Exploitative activities such as mining would not be permitted. Governments might be ambivalent towards it as, in the short term, less income might be earned.
67
What is total protection?
This is an approach really only favoured by conservationists and some traditionalists among local people, as this does not permit access to the pristine environment at all, expect perhaps for scientific monitoring and research purposes. It therefore does not allow local people to earn revenue from it, or tourists to enjoy it.
68
What factors decide which management technique should used?
Thus depends on the area and the interplay of the views of involved players. In some areas there are immediate crises, for others time to plan ahead. For most areas there are a number of alternative strategies; often these are appropriate only for certain parts of a large area. Zoning is often a very useful middle way, with the highest-value wilderness areas fully protected, possibly surrounded by areas where sustainable activity is permitted - for example, the buffer zone within a biosphere reserve, and designated areas which are targeted for economic development.
69
What are legislative frameworks?
These frameworks can be developed at a number of scales and can aid the protection and conservation of glaciated landscapes considerably, provided they are closely policed and monitored. Mandatory legislation has ‘teeth’ and is likely to be far more successful in protection and conservation than frameworks and agreements (hard vs soft strategies).
70
How are individual species protected?
They’re protected by global strategies such as Convention on International trade in Endangered Species (CITES) signed in 1973 - many Arctic species are on the list, including polar bears and walruses.
Conservationists would challenge these schemes and their effectiveness, using the examples of whales and elephants in ivory trade. Whales are also protected but limited numbers are allowed to be caught for scientific purposes. This leads to global protests from organisations such as greenspace.
71
What does the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) do for endangered species?
It published a red list for endangered species, with polar bears currently classified as ‘vulnerable”. However, so far the US refuses its accepted designation as this would mean acknowledging climate warming as the main reason for vulnerability.
72
How does UNESCO help protect environments?
They have a global system of World Heritage Sites, with sites being listed for either their ecological or cultural importance. Wrangel Island (owned by Russia) was designated a World Heritage Ecological Site in 2004 as it has a very high level of biodiversity (including 23 endemics, large numbers of polar bear breeding dens, feeding grounds for grey whales, and the worlds largest population of Pacific Walrus. Some of the explorers huts in the Antarctic are designated cultural sites as they contain historical artefacts from expeditions such as those of Scott.
73
What is the issue with much of legislation?
It is without real ‘teeth’ (expect with Antarctica), and rarely gives protection from growing tourist’s activity (the SMART project is only a loose agreement to carry out sustainable tourism in the Arctic). National economic needs means that activities such as mining and drilling are allowed to override environmental protection in some cases. Moreover, not even the ATS can give protection against climate change and trans-boundary pollution, which are considered by many decision makers to be the most pressing issues.
74
What is climate change described as?
A context hazard with worldwide, far-reaching environmental consequences. In spite of the efforts to model its impacts using emission scenarios by numerous scientists, usually working for the Intergovernmental Abel on Climate Change, it is very difficult to forecast its likely environmental and socioeconomic impacts.
75
What do most climate scientists consider to be the main driver of changes in climate?
Rising levels of greenhouse gases from human activities. The problem is that changes are amplified by positive feedback loops, such as the melting of glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets, which lower albedo, or the melting of permafrost which releases large quantities of methane, a very powerful greenhouse gas.
As a result, active glacier environments face multiple stresses as global changes on the physical environment impact on the human environment in a multitude of ways.
76
Would climate change cause the worlds climates to become more varied and more hazardous?
It would certainly cause changing weather patterns, with more extreme events leading to higher incidences of weather hazards and disasters brought about by changes in atmospheric circulation.
77
What will climate change cause to happen to our life support systems of water and carbon cycles?
Water insecurity will certainly increase for many people and communities for a variety of reasons. With the melting of permafrost and the loss of masses of methane, there will be losses in the carbon stores and the potential for instability within the carbon cycle.
78
Which of the glaciated and periglacial environments are most vulnerable to climate warming? In particular, how vulnerable are relict environments compared to active environments? And upland areas compared to lowland areas?
This is a very complex issue. While active landscapes are likely to experience more dramatic impacts of melting from climate change than relict environments, upland areas are more exposed to the impacts of temperature changes than lowland areas.
79
What will climate change cause to happen to sea levels?
Certainly they will rise - various scenarios predict by up to 0.5-0.75m by the end of the 21st century, which will but at least 100 million people’s lives at risk. All the US cities from Miami to Boston, large cities in Asia, Bangladesh and also many delta areas and coral reef islands will be flooded or beset with saltwater incursions, affecting people’s subsistence, should major ice sheets melt.
80
What will climate change cause to happen to wildlife?
Iconic images of polar bears abound with no pack ice to feed off; their lives will be threatened as there will be complex changes in food webs, especially in polar areas. The loss of krill, perhaps linked to decreasing sea ice cover, will have consequences for the whole Antarctic food web. Note that it’s not all decimation - many groups of animals such as seals extend their habitats by migration,
81
What will climate change cause to happen to the oceanic circulation?
The Doomsday scenario is for the total collapse of the thermohaline circulations and complete disruption of ocean currents. Recent modelling suggests a 20-50% collapse as ice sheets melt and icebergs cool the water, partially blocking the passage of currents such as the Gulf Stream.
82
What will climate change cause to happen to people’s lifestyles, especially traditional lifestyles of indigenous people whose hunting habits will be affected as migration patterns and numbers of animals and fish change?
Diseases and pests are spreading pole-wards with major implications for biodiversity. With the threat of these changed and the multiplication of stressors, there is general agreement that drastic action must be taken to manage that impacts of climate change in order to avoid reaching the tipping point, originally seen as a certain level of greenhouse gas emissions or as a threshold of global temperature rise of 2°C. The visible manifestation would be the melting of the East and parts of the West Antarctica Ice Sheet, and partial collapse of the global ocean current system.
83
What is the two-pronged strategy of tackling climate change?
This includes mitigating against the impacts and adapting to them. This has to take place at all scales to be a successful strategy. Most scientists say that even if effective mitigation could occur, by ‘stopping’ greenhouse gas pollution, there is so much delay in the system that adaptation is likely to be necessary too, especially as an interim measure.
84
Why is climate warming an increasingly challenging issue in the 21st century?
Many governments, communities and individuals have been slow to acknowledge the problem. Only by co-ordinating approaches globally, and then applying them both nationally and locally, is there any hope that the context hazard of climate warming could be managed.
85
What are some mitigation strategies individuals can use?
Lifestyle and consumption changes.
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What are some mitigation strategies that can be used locally?
Local government strategies for planning, recycling, transport, micro-energy, green homes etc.
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What are some examples of mitigation strategies that can be used nationally?
General policies and legislation, e.g on energy mix, transport and taxing certain industries.
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What are some examples of global and international mitigation strategies?
International agreements, e.g Kyoto; co-operation to control emissions and agree targets for carbon dioxide emissions.
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What is Greenland’s environmental value?
Although it is mostly covered by ice sheet, the land and waters of Greenland support a fragile biodiversity of endemic plants, large mammals such as polar bear, reindeer, Arctic fox and whale as well as a diverse range of fish and bird. These organisms and ecosystems offer important opportunities for scientific research, wilderness recreation, cultural identity and economic exploitation.
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Why is Greenland’s glacial landscape important to the water cycle?
The Greenland ice sheet contains approximately 10% of the total global ice mass and it therefore plays an important role in the global water cycle. The average rate of ice loss from the Greenland ice sheet has increased from 34 to 215 gigatonnes a year between 1992 and 2011. The ICPP calculated that if the whole Greenland ice sheet melted, sea levels would rise by a whole 7m. This would cause many cities such as London and New York to flood, and countries such as the Maldives would disappear.
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How does Greenland’s ice sheets play a crucial role in regulating global climate?
It does this via feedback cycles. Ice has high albedo, which means that it reflects more solar radiation than land. However, current ice loss in Greenland is reducing surface albedo, increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed and further increasing temperatures. This is a positive feedback mechanism.
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How does Greenland hold cultural value?
Although many Greenlandic Inuit now live in towns, with modern homes and appliances, and work in the growing mining and tourism industries, they still utilise the glacial and periglacial landscapes to maintain their traditional lifestyles of hunting, fishing and herding.
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What is the threat to Greenland’s cultural value?
Hunting culture is increasingly threatened by modern culture, by conservationists and by climate change. Pressure from environmental groups has led to hunting limits for most species, and also the loss of sea ice is reducing the size of hunting grounds. Nonetheless, there is an active movement among indigenous people to pass on their traditional knowledge, skills and native languages to the younger generation.
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Why is Greenland important for scientific research?
Greenland ice possesses immense value for sci research. For example, the Greenland ice sheet contains a unique record of the Earth’s climate history, as it is made up of layers of snow and ice that formed over millions of years. The layers contain trapped gases, dust, pollen and water molecules that scientists can use to study past climates by drilling deep ice cores.
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What is Greenland’s economic value?
The glacial landscape of Greenland offers a wealth of economic opportunities. Meltwater provides huge potential for hydroelectric power - the country is thought to have the world’s biggest unexploited hydropower capacity. Furthermore, as the ice retreats it is revealing the highly valuable deposits of oil, gas, metals and minerals, including rubies and gold. Tourism also offers another area of economic growth for Greenland, with increasing numbers of cruise liners now operating in the island’s western and southern waters during the peak summer tourism season.
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How does climate change pose a threat to Greenland’s glacial landscape?
Climate change poses a significant threat to the natural glacial environment, as a result of both ice loss and the opening up of areas for economic exploitation. Increased industrial activity, such as oil and gas exploration and marine shipping, will bring stresses to the environment. For example, as the sea ice retreats, new commercial shipping routes could open in the Arctic. Increased shipping increases the risk of Marine pollution. Overfishing and the discharge of ballast water into the Arctic seas may introduce invasive species that may outcompete and displace resident species.
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What did conservationists in Greenland protest in 2014?
The government decision to reverse a ban on radioactive uranium mining. The decision means that areas in the South of Greenland could be opened up to large-scale mining projects for uranium and rare earth metals. The conservationists feared that the impact of mining extensive deposits in pristine natural environments would be widespread and irreversible. They claimed that the radioactive waste from the mining processes would endanger fisheries and farmland in the region, both of which are vital for local communities. Southern Greenland is only part of the island capable of supporting farming.
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Why do polar bears face an uncertain future in Greenland?
Threatened by climate change and environmental pollution, as the sea ice melts, the polar bear’s hunting grounds are reduced. Organic pollutants - which can impair the ability for the bears to reproduce- have been discovered in high concentrations in polar bears from East Greenland and Svalbard.
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How is Greenland’s glacial landscape threatened politically?
In 2007, Russia claimed part of the Arctic seabed at the North Pole, when polar explorers descended through the ice waters to plant a titanium Russian flag on the seabed. This caused conflict with other arctic nations such as Denmark and Canada, which have now staked their own claims to sections of the Arctic seabed.
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What is the Yamal Peninsula, Russia?
It is a harsh periglacial landscape environment in Northwest Siberia, where winter temperatures fall to -50°C and permafrost penetrates up to 500m deep. The Peninsula is home to the Nenets, nomadic reindeer herders who survive on the tundra pastures.
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What is the Yamal Peninsula’s environmental value?
Despite low biodiversity in the Tundra, it has global value for birds particularly. This is because it provides a summer home for many migratory species and thus plays a role in worldwide food webs. The permafrost also has a global value as a large-scale carbon sink, storing an immense amount of carbon and methane (2x as much carbon as in the atmosphere). In the warming climate, permafrost is expected to melt, and these stored gases will be released to add further warming (positive feedback cycle).
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What is the economic value of the Yamal Peninsula?
The Nenets’ herder economy is driven by the reindeer meat they sell. Reindeer herding supports more than 10,000 nomads, who herd over 300,000 domesticated reindeer on the pasture of the Peninsula, 80% of which is privately owned by the herders. However, the value of the reindeer is nothing compared to the resources which lie beneath the pasture. It contains the biggest gas reserve on the planet, holding almost 1/4 of the worlds known gas reserves. There is now increasing investment and infrastructure development for large-scale exploitation of this valuable energy resource.
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What is the cultural value of the Yamal Peninsula?
The Nenets’ understanding of the harsh climate and fragile ecosystem has enabled them to live sustainably in this inhospitable land. The reindeer provide the Nenets with transport, clothing, hides for tents, meat and income. The Nenets and their reindeer migrate seasonally to avoid the extreme cold winter temperatures in the north and to prevent the overgrazing of pastures.
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How does climate change pose a threat to the Yamal Peninsula?
It poses a significant threat to the tundra and to the Nenets. Earlier spring melts and delays to the autumn freeze are affecting the reindeers and herders’ ability to cross the frozen tundra, which threatens their survival. In July 2014, large sinkholes were discovered on the Yamal Peninsula, which Russian researchers believe to have been caused by methane released as the permafrost thawed. This change to the carbon cycle is a threat to the global climate system, as well as to local culture and biodiversity.
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How have attempts to exploit the Yamal Peninsula’s gas posed a threat?
Early attempts to exploit gas on the Yamal Peninsula have posed considerable threats to both the natural environment and the Nenets. In the 1980s the infrastructure constructed to exploit the Bovanenkovo gas field destroyed pasture, forcing overgrazing of the tundra and disruption to migration routes, causing conflict with the Nenets. There had been no environmental impact assessment or consultation with the native people. Eventually, work on this gas field was suspended due to the extremely high costs.
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What is the ‘Yamal Megaproject’?
This is being developed by the majority state-owned energy giant Gazprom. The aim will be to exploit and bring to the market the vast natural gas reserves in the Yamal Peninsula, so there will be ongoing cultural and environmental concerns. Several ambitious infrastructure projects are included, such as a 572-km railway line, a gas pipeline and several bridges. These have already led to the eviction of more than 160 reindeer herders, and loss of tundra to concrete.
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What benefits to Gazprom promise to bring with the Yamal Megaproject?
They plan to build housing, kindergartens, hospitals and both fish- and venison-processing factories. They are also providing financial compensation to the Nenets. Many question whether the Nenets will be able to maintain their traditional culture, as these changes are forcing them into modern settlements and jobs. Without the Nenets, the Yamal ecosystems will lose their main custodians.
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What is the Lake District an example of?
A relict glacial landscape.
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What is the economic value of the Lake District?
-Over 16 million visitors arrive every year, and are attracted by the dramatic scenery and the well-developed tourist facilities. The local economy benefits hugely from this influx, with visitors spending £1.1billion in 2014.
-Many services that benefit tourists also benefit the local people (e.g better public transport). Some of the money that tourists bring in is also used to protect the environment visitors come to see. Tourism provides over 16000 jobs (or full-time equivalent) in the Lake Distrjct National Park.
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What are the threats to the Lake District from tourism?
Both the landscape and ecology of the Lake District are fragile and under threat from overuse. Activities such as walking, climbing and camping can lead to footpath erosion, trampling and littering, which challenged the area’s resilience. The Lake District is also facing other problems:
-Additional tourist traffic causes congestion and pollution.
-Jobs in the tourism industry are often poorly paid and seasonal
-An increase in demand for housing (often second homes) is driving up house prices. This means local people are becoming more and more unable to afford homes where they grew up.
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How is tourism causing footpath erosion in the Lake District?
There are almost 2000 miles of footpath in the Lake District, but the people who come to enjoy they can cause them major issues….
-Walked destroy vegetation and compact the soil, reducing infiltration rates.
-The exposed soil is also more easily washed away by heavy rain (which the Lake District gets a lot of)
-Gullies may then form along footpaths causing further erosion.
-When walkers try to avoid badly eroded sections of the footpath, they inevitably end up widening the path
-Increased storms are likely to worsen the issue.
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How is the Lake District important for water storage?
A dam at the northern end of the Lake District was constructed by Manchester Corporation in the late 19th century to provide water for the city’s expanding population. Before the reservoir was built, this glacial valley contained two small tarns and a small hamlet with a pub; creating the reservoir submerged the tars and settlement. A 96 mile pipe was built in 1894 to carry water from the Lake District to Manchester and is still in use today.
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How is the Lake District important for Forestry?
The land surrounding Thirlmere is forested. This reduced soil erosion (which could cause siltation of reservoir, and also generates income from selling the timber. The reservoir and its surrounding forest are both managed by United Utilities, who are responsible for looking after the wildlife and protecting the reservoir from pollution.
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How is farming important in the Lake District?
Langdale in the Lake District is typical of the landscape that tourists come to see. This landscape is dominated by farming. The trend is towards fewer and larger hill farms, but there has also been an increase in the number of the smallest holdings.
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What are some of the likely impacts on the Lake District as a result of climate change?
-The loss of indigenous plant and animal species.
-An increase in non-native species (which could impact the food chain
-The gradual movement of habitats from lower to higher altitudes (making those at higher altitudes more vulnerable)
-An increase in insect species, e,g the midge which can infect cattle with Bluetongue disease (seen in British for the first time in 2007).
-The heavy rain will wash more soil and farm chemicals into the lakes.
-The peat on the fells will dry out in the warmer summers (releasing stored carbon), and the dry moorlands will also be more prone to fires.
-The forests will be at greater risk of damage from gales in winter and forest fires in summer.
-Roads and properties will be damaged and cut off by winter floods,
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How is the Lake District being managed for the future?
In 1951, the Lake District was designated as one of Englands first national parks. Despite the LDNPA being responsible for managing the area, they only own 3.9% of the land. The rest is owned by a variety of organisations and private landowners.
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What is the Lake District National Park Partnership?
Formed in 2006, it gives organisations involved in the park more say in its management. 25 organisations are involved, which between them represent the public, private and, community and voluntary sectors. For example, Cumbria County Council, Historic England, LDNP, National Trust and United Utilities.
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How are they trying to tackle climate change in the Lake District?
In 2008, the ‘Low-carbon Lake District’ initiative was launched. It’s a programme to tackle climate changes and is working with local businesses, communities and other agencies to reduce greenhouse gases and prepare for the impacts of climate change. Work to create a low-carbon Lake District involved:
-Using a low-carbon budget, which measures carbon emissions from the local area and works to meet reduction targets.
-The GoLakes travel programme, with the aim of transforming how visitors get to and travel around the lakes.
-Planning policies to meet the highest energy efficiency standards and integrate low-carbon energy generation where possible.
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What is the vision for the Lake District for 2030?
The Lake District National Park will be an inspirational example of sustainable development in action. It will be a place where a prosperous economy, world-class visitor experiences and vibrant communities all come together to sustain the spectacular landscape, its wildlife and cultural heritage. Local people, visitors, and the many organisations working in the Lake District - or who have a contribution to make to it - must be United in achieving this.
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What are the 4 elements of the vision for 2030 for the Lake District?
-Creating a prosperous economy
-Achieving a world-class visitor experience
-Helping vibrant communities
-Maintaining a spectacular landscape, as well as its wildlife and cultural heritage.
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What is the Sagarmatha National Park?
This park includes the highest mountain on Earth: Everest. It’s an area of dramatic mountains, glaciers and deep valleys - and it’s a unique and fragile ecosystem which is home to rare species such as the snow leopard. The National Park is a well-known destination for mountain tourism (over 37,000 visited in 2014), and is also home to over 6000 Sherpa people.
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What are the opportunities for the Sagarma National Park from tourism?
The tourism industry in the Sagarmatha National Park is largely in the hands of the Sherpa people. However, outsiders from other parts of Nepal - as well as foreigners - are increasingly establishing businesses in the area, and the number of migrant workers is also rising. Increasing tourist numbers have boosted the local economy, which has led to improved standards of living, better health care, education and infrastructure. However tourism does cause environmental damage and socio-economic change.
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What are the direct threats from tourism in the Sagamartha National Park?
-Footpath erosion
-The construction of illegal trails
-Water pollution
-Problems with waste disposal
-A greater demand for forest products, such as firewood
-An increased demand for new hotels and lodges.
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Who are the Sherpa people?
-A tribe that live in NE Nepal, around Mount Everest.
-93% are Buddhist, but they also believe in many Gods and Demons associated with the mountains.
-Their culture and religion restricts the amount of animal hunting and respect for all living things.
-Sherpa economic activities are based on farming and trade. They also have a reputation of being excellent tour guides of the local area, which has bought them a new source of income.
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How does climbing Everest provide economic activity in Sagarmatha?
-Commercial companies guide people and give them the chance of a successful ‘summit’ due to improvements of equipment in recent times. Selecting good ‘weather windows’ also give them the best opportunity to successfully and safety take clients to the summit. Over 6000 people have now reached the Summit, with about 90% being guided climbs.
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What are the negatives of climbing Everest?
The two main routes up Everest are dangerously crowded during the peak climbing season, and badly polluted with piles of rubbish, abandoned equipment and human waste. New rules mean that all waste is now removed from Everest Base Camp, but camps at higher altitudes remain seriously polluted.
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What are the new controls over climbing Everest?
-Limiting the number of permits given to climbers each year
-Restricting group sizes to reduce dangerous traffic jams, particularly at the Hillary Step on the southern ascent from Nepal.
-Insisting that all guides are properly qualified and experienced.
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What Avalanche happened at Mount Everest?
Om 25th April 2015, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck Nepal. Mount Everest was approximately 220km east of the epicentre, but the earthquake triggered several large avalanches on and around the mountain. One avalanche swept into South Base Camp and then through part of the Khumbu Icefall. It was the deadliest avalanche ever experienced on Everest (killing at least 22 people). In April 2014, an earlier avalanche killed 16 guides.
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What deforestation has occurred in the Sagarmatha National Park?
Despite now being heavily forested, less than 30% of the country’s natural forest now remains. The deforestation was caused by:
-Farming (steep hillsides are cleared of vegetation and replaced with crops, cows and goats)
-The use of firewood as the main source of fuel
-Clearance of forested areas to build roads, reservoirs, HEP projects.
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What are the consequences of deforestation in the Sagarmatha National Park?
-The loss of wildlife habitats (and hence a loss of biodiversity)
-The exposure of the soil, which causes nutrients to be washed away - leaning the soil infertile and lowering crop yields.
-The erosion of the exposed soil, particularly steep hillsides
-Significantly increased risk of landslides
-Distribution of the water cycle
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How is Sagarmatha being managed for the future?
Sustainable management of vital in order to balance the exploitation and preservation of the National Park. Strategies include:
-Establishing plant nurseries to provide seedlings to re-establish forests on hill slopes and reduce erosion.
-Setting up projects sponsored through the Sir Edmund Hillary Foundation, including schools, hospital
-Banning goats to protect vegetation
-Using kerosene rather than firewood for cooking
-Building micro HEP stations to generate electricity for local use.
-Limiting some development projects (e.g Sanboche airport).
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Who are the key players in managing the Sagarmatha National Park?
-Global organisations: recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1979.
-Government agencies: managed by the National Park and Wildlife Conservation Office
-Local residents and stakeholders
-NGOs - e.g Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee.
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What was the glacial outburst flood in Nepal?
August 1985, a flood caused a 10-15m high surge of water and debris to flood down the Bhote Koshi and Dudh Koshi rivers in Nepal. It destroyed the Namche Small Hydro Project among many other things.
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What is the Antarctic Treaty?
Coming into force in 1961, and having 53 agreeing nations by 2015, this international agreement has been extended several times in order to regulate international relations on Earth’s only continent without a native human population.
It sets Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on the continent.
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What was the Madrid protocol?
It came into force in 1998, prohibiting any exploitation of Antarctic mineral resources for 50 years, expect for scientific research.
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Why is the Antarctic treaty heralded as one of the most successful international agreements in history?
It has allowed nations to peacefully cooperate to further scientific research and understanding of the Earth. For example, environmental mentoring in Antarctic led to the discovery of the stratospheric ozone hole in the early 1980s.
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What is the Antarctic treaty’s regards to tourism?
It recognises tourism as a legitimate activity in Antarctica and it regulates the industry. Tourism companies are required to have a permit to visit the continent, and guidance is given to visitors so that they are aware of their responsibilities when in the Antarctic Treaty area. Commercial tourism using both ships and aircraft has increased steadily since the first commercial expeditions in the 1950s, and the total number of tourists visiting Antarctica peaked in the 2007/8 season at around 46,000.
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What is the Alpine convention?
This is an international treaty between the Alpine countries and the EU. The aim is to achieve sustainable development in the Alps by protecting the natural environment while promoting economic development. The aim is to balance the needs of 14 million residents and 120 million tourists per year.
It came into force in 1995 and consists of a number of protocols which provide specific measures required to achieve sustainability.
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Have all parties followed the Alpine Convention’s protocols?
No, for example Switzerland has not ratified any protocols yet, which means that they have not passed national legislation to support the protocol. The Swiss central government found that the convention was opposed by most of the mountain cantons, who felt responsibility for their local area would be taken out of their hands. They feel as though the convention is too focused on protecting the environment and therefore threatens their livelihoods and economy.
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What is Zermatt, Switzerland?
It is best known for its spectacular pyramidal peak. The active upland glacial landscape faces a number of human threats which arise from its popularity as a ski resort, with over 2 million annual visitors. It has a population of 6,000 but in the peak skiing season this will rise to 35,000.
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What environmental issues are caused by the ski resort in Zermatt?
It creates huge demand for energy and water resources and threatens environmental degradation due to urbanisation, increased noise and vehicle emissions as well as the expansion of ski areas. The preparation of ski slopes can damage the fragile ecosystem and soil.
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What does the WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) report about the ski tourism in Zermatt?
It is one of the most ecologically devastating leisure in the alps. Irreparable damage to the landscape results from the construction of ski runs and the increasing use of energy intensive ski cannons. These apply large amounts of water, chemical and biological additives to the slopes.
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Why could Zermatt consider itself a sustainment Ski Resort?
Both buildings and companies have won sustainability prizes. The town is car-free, with tourists encouraged to go on foot or use bikes, electric buses or electric taxis. A new high altitude restaurant in Zermatt has also won the European Solar Prize for its innovative design and use of renewable energy. The building is designed to reduce energy consumption, and waste water is collected and purified before being reused for sanitation.
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How has Zermatt Bergbahnen AG helped make Zermatt more sustainable?
This is the company that is responsible for managing the ski pistes and lifts. They state that they have invested up to 1 million Swiss Francs per year in environmental projects, including the repair of past damage. They’re conducting tests to find the ideal plants to revegetate the high-altitude slopes, and claim that 85% of priority areas have now been repaired. The company has a qualified environmental expert who supervises all construction work and enforces the laws that protect conservation areas.
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What does Zermatt do to protect wildlife?
It has 6 protected forests and 10 designated wildlife sanctuaries, which include seven endemic plants. The legally enforced sanctuary areas are either entirely closed to the public during winter, or offer only designated routes for use, with infringements punishable by law.
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What do critics claim about Zermatt?
They say there is much more that still needs to be done in order for it to be sustainable, including limiting the number of future tourists and constructions.
In 2007, plans to build a tower with a resturant and hotel to raise the mountains to over 4000m in height cause lots of controversy. It would of bought significant economic benefit through tourism, but environmentalists feared further degradation to the landscape.
A similar issue was caused when the proposal of a car park for 2000 cars was suggested in 2010. The WWF estimated that its construction would of caused 9000m squared of forest to be lost!
147
On what three levels can glacial environments provide economic value?
Primary sector: Farming, mining, quarrying, forestry
Secondary sector: Sand and Gravel from outwash, which is used to then make concrete for the building industry.
Tertiary sector: Tourism and HEP energy (this is tertiary as it is a service)
148
What causes arctic regions to be so fragile?
Although Tundra ecosystems are surprisingly diverse, they also develop very slowly. They have adapted to the harsh climates over a long time period, and as a result will be very sensitive to change, such as reduced snow cover and warmer temperatures.
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What is Arctic amplification? (the reason why glacial and periglacial vulnerability is linked)
Feedback loops which occur in the glacial environment will cause change in the periglacial environment (and vice versa) via feedback loops:
-The albedo effect in glacial environments will cause a further reduction in ice cover, causing warming temperatures which effect glacial ice cover.
-Melting permafrost will increase the methane released into the atmosphere, which will then in turn increase global temperatures, leading to snow melt.
-Less snow cover exposes dark coloured rocks to solar energy, which increases insolation levels and causes further ice melt.
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What potential negative feedback cycles could work to reduce the vulnerability that glacial and periglacial environments face with climate change?
-Warmer temperatures do lead to more decomposition, increasing climate change, but they will also cause the release of nutrients.
-This could encourage greater plant growth, which will mean that more carbon would be removed from the atmosphere because of photosynthesis.
