Topic 5 - EQ3 Flashcards

Question

Where is water pollution felt most?

Answer 1

Developing countries. 1 billion people are without safe water and 2,3 billion lack adequate sanitation. The difference of impact is related to the ability of developed countries to do something about it, either by prevention or remediation of supplies.

Answer 2

In China, 300 million people use contaminated water daily, and 190million suffer from water-related illnesses annually. In China 1/3 of all rivers, 75% of major lakes and 25% of coastal zones are currently classified as highly polluted. In the long-term, 2 million Chinese people may suffer from water diseases, including a town where digestive cancers we’re responsible for 80% of recent deaths. Contaminants usually enter the waterway through run-off or untreated sewage.

Answer 3

Groundwater contamination is potentially even more serious is important aquifers are irreversibly damaged. Nearly 20% of all tube wells in Bangladesh were found to be unsafe because of a high concentration of arsenic. This causes major health issues, which then correlates to social impacts, as the victims developed arsenicosis with skin lesions. Worldwide, 137 million people in over 70 countries have some signs of arsenic poisoning from drinking water,

Answer 4

-Untreated sewage disposal, especially in developing countries where sanitation is poorer. This causes water-borne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and hepatitis. As many people are forced to use unsafe water, it is estimated by WHO 135million could die unnecessarily by 2020 from water borne diseases. In India, only 20% of sewage is treated before returning to water. -Chemical fertilisers: used increasingly by farmers and they contaminate groundwater as well as rivers. This causes eutrophication in lakes and rivers. This leads to hypoxia and the formation of dead zones in coastal waters. Many of the pesticides are banned in developed countries due to the health hazards. -Industrial waste is dumped in to rivers and then travels into oceans. Heavy metals and chemical waste is particularly toxic. The Ganges is a useful example to study; many toxic industries, such as tanneries, discharge their waste directly into the holy river. -As over 60% of the worlds major rivers are impeded by large dams, this has a major impact on sediment movement, which can then impact on river ecology.

Answer 5

Humans can over-abstract from both rivers and lakes, as well as groundwater stores for domestic uses, agriculture, and industrial usage. By 2025, total projected water withdrawals will reach over 5000km^3 per year, of which agriculture will make up 2/3 of. Regionally and locally, a combination of a number of drivers (population growth, migration, urbanisation, rising living standards, industrialisation) will have increased water demand to unsustainable levels. -Removal of fresh water from aquifers on coastal locations can upset the natural balance of saline and freshwater, which can lead to salt water intrusion and salinisation of wells, boreholes and wetlands. Coastal storm surges and rising sea levels compound the problem.

Answer 6

Until recently, agriculture absorbed over 70% of extractions globally, but industrial usage in rising p, especially in developed countries and emerging economies where the proportion can rise up to 60%, especially in paper and metal industries. The energy industry also requires increasing amounts of water for new energy developments such as biofuels and fracking. A number of technological developments are available to cut water usage in all sectors of the economy but, with a finite source, the damage has been done.

Answer 7

Water insecurity means not having access to sufficient safe/clean water. Despite the global efforts to improve water supply and sanitation, around 1 billion people are still without access to clean water. Manu of these people live in 30 or so developing countries where the root cause is poverty. The others live in areas of physical scarcity where only technology and capital investment can overcome the shortage or unreliability of supply.

Answer 8

Availability: having not only a water supply but a water distribution network. Access: freedom to use, or income to buy, water ina particular location. Usage - Entitlement to, and understanding of, water and health issues.

Answer 9

Physical scarcity is largely determined by climate with concentrations, in general terms, in high-pressure latitudinal bands between 23.5°N and S and 35°N and S. However, factors such as continentality and topography are significant regionally. A number of factors may be significant at a more local scale, such as geology. The situation isn’t static, as temperature areas such as South Africa or California can be affected by drought-related climate change. Climate change can lead to physical scarcity.

Answer 10

Economic scarcity has a very different global distribution. Above all it is associated with developing countries that lack capital and technology and good governance to fully exploit their often adequate supplies of blue water, sub-Saharan Africa stands out as the key concentration of countries experiencing economic water scarcity, although there are one or two other countries, such as Haiti (the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere), and Laos in South East Asia.

Answer 11

In 2002, the centre for ecology and hydrology published the first WPI. It is an assessment of the degree of water shortage and the subsequent water insecurity problems. Scores can generally be correlated with GNP per capita, with Canada having the highest score (78) and Ethiopia one of the lowest (48).

Answer 12

-Resources: the quantity of surface and groundwater per person and its quality. -Access: the time and distance involved in obtaining sufficient safe water. -Capacity: how well the community manages its water -Use: how ecologically water is used in the home and by agriculture and industry -Environment: ecological sustainability (green water). The scores are out of 20 to give a maximum possible score of 100.

Answer 13

-The physical costs of obtaining the supply. In some cities, the water has to be piped for many kilometres from mountain reservoirs (e.g Los Angeles gets it water from Colorado. -The degree of demand for the water. If water is scarce, as in the 2015 Californian drought, the price increases to manage demand. Even in cities in developed countries, such as New York, there are considerable numbers of poor people without direct supply to their homes. -Insufficient infrastructure (such as Accra in Ghana). People live in slum districts and have to rely on water tankers and bottled water. Costs of clean water can often be nearly double standard tap connection price. -The final factor is the supplier of the water. In many areas in developing countries water is free, but often not treated in anyway and therefore, not clean. People can have to spend hours walking to get supplies of water. In urban areas, it is supplied by companies at market price, meaning once again poor people lose out. Some countries such as Cuba have subsidised prices to ensure it is affordable to all.

Answer 14

If people are to have taps, safe drinking supplies and flushing toilets, there has to be an industry to manage and supply the infrastructure., meaning the water and costs have to be paid by someone. However it is hard to know what to charge different consumers (farmers, industrialists, rich people, slum dwellers) and who (if anyone) should benefit from selling the basic human need.

Answer 15

In the late 20th century, politicians, financiers and other decision makers promoted the neo-liberal view in favour of privatisation of public utilities such as water, they did this on the assumption that market mechanisms would simultaneously conserve water, improve efficiency and increase service quality. Subsides would end, so all consumers would be charged for water at the cost of supplying it. However, it can also be seen as a way to make profit, possibly pushing price even further.

Answer 16

Neo-liberal policies promoted by the World Bank and IMF to help developing countries overcome their debt problems. These are now superseded by poverty reduction strategy papers as for many countries SAP resulted in unacceptable hardship and little progress with solutions to debts.

Answer 17

Existing systems were inefficient, corrupt and failed to provide water to poorer citizens.

Answer 18

It was a disaster not only for developing countries and their citizens, but for the water companies as well, who planned to make huge profits from the opportunity. The cost of producing water (often under difficult circumstances) meant huge price increases, which the poor couldn’t pay.

Answer 19

A local company was given a monopoly to collect water charges and actually took over water co-operatives run by the householders and tried to make them pay very high prices. Months of protests occupied the city square by 80,000 people. Eventually, the company fled.

Answer 20

They want to take back their water into public ownership in order to do this.

Answer 21

Water plays a central role in all economic productivity, either directly as an input or as part of the context in which economic activity takes place (e.g recreational tourism). Currently, agriculture still takes up 2/3 of global water usage, but industrial usage in China and India (for economic development) also takes huge masses of water, as does the energy industry. There are major concerns over the environmental impacts of these activities, from the destruction of ecosystems to uncontrolled discharge of polluted effluents.

Answer 22

Around 1/5 of the worlds land is under full irrigation. In water-short and monsoon areas, traditional practices such as basin irrigation have always been used. Industrial scale irrigation, which began in the 1960s using high-yield variety seeds combined with fertilisers and pest control, has greatly increased the pressure. A further source of pressure on water supplies for agriculture is the dietary revolution in countries such as China, where there has been a huge rise in the consumption of dairy products and meat. It takes just under 3000litres of water to produces 1kg of rice, but 6x more to produce 1kg of beef.

Answer 23

A large increase in crop production in developing countries achieved by the use of artificial fertilizers, pesticides, and high-yield crop varieties. Despite improving food security enormously, it has also caused many issues: -30% of this irrigation is provided using dams, from which systems of irrigation canals radiate. Irrigated land becomes easily waterlogged, leading to salivation of the soils. -The majority of irrigation is pumped up electrically from aquifers, leading to massive groundwater depletion. Especially in India, USA and China. The mantra for irrigated systems is now ‘more crop per drop’, using a modern automated spray technology and more advanced drip irrigation. Phase 3 of the green revolution also has realised food security is closely linked in with water security in drought prone areas. It is focused on drought-restraint and salt-tolerant crop strains.

Answer 24

20% of all fresh water withdrawal worldwide is for energy production and industry. While in developed countries this percentage is about half of all water usage, especially in paper, fuel and electronic industries. There has also been a fall in usage in developed countries as heavy manufacturing industries such as steel, have declined. A major concern is the industrial shift towards emerging countries such as China and South Korea. As a result, rivers and groundwater is becoming increasingly contaminated, affecting water quality. TNCs like Coco-Cola in India are working to become more sustainable and recycle efficiently.

Answer 25

Energy use is a very mixed picture, over half of water used is either for generating HEP or cooling of thermal and nuclear power stations. This leaves water virtually unchanged, although the warmth can impact on river ecosystems. Countries such as New Zealand which rely heavily on HEP are affected by changing patterns of rainfall - especially decreasing amounts linked to short-term climate change. Another area of concern is biofuels. The crops grow to produce bioethanol and biodiesel are very thirsty: up to 10,000 litres of water is needed to produce 1 litre of bioethanol, and 20,000 litres for 1litre of biodiesel.

Answer 26

Although huge improvements have been made via the thrust of MDGs, around 15% of the worlds population still relies on unimproved water (e.g untreated surface water). Furthermore, around 2,5 billion still have no access to improved sanitation facilities. Water and disease interact in two ways, unsafe drinking water can spread disease, but water used for personal and domestic hygiene can prevent disease transmission.

Answer 27

Lack of sanitation. It is estimated to contribute 10% of the global disease burden. This lack of sanitation is combined with low standards of personal hygiene. A major issue is indiscriminate or open defecation. The diarrhoel diseases (including cholera) are examples of diseases transmitted by faecal-oral routes.

Answer 28

They cause high levels of morbidity, the also affect people’s abilities to work and look after their families. When combined together, these all essentially affect people’s abilities to escape poverty.

Answer 29

Vectors of diseases, such as malarial mosquitoes. Infections can be contracted from washing in surface water polluted with human feaces. New reservoirs behind dams expand the breeding ground for insects and snails. For some projects, increased prosperity, improved nutrition and access to medical facilities more than outweighs the additional risk of infection. Ignorance from a lack of education and poor drainage are blighting the lives of millions of people in sub-Saharan Africa and also poorer parts of South Asia.

Answer 30

They plan to tackle the issue at its roots by providing clean water and improved sanitation in rural districts. Despite this and many other developments by other NGOs, enormous problems remain. Poverty of both countries and the people within them is the single most important factor regarding improvement.

Answer 31

When demand for water overtakes available supply, and a number of stakeholders wish to use the same diminished resources, there is a potential for conflict at all scales. Competing demands for diminishing water supplies for irrigation, energy and industry as well as domestic use can lead to tension both within and between countries. Between 1948 and 2008, of 2000 international ‘events’ only 25% actually broke out into any form of conflict and only 1.5% caused serious wars. 2/3 of these were about quantity of water available, with upstream users taking more than their fair share (like in the Nile Basin). The other common source of conflict was with the building of dams and diversion canals, and their ecological impacts. There have been many political and terrorist actions threatening to destroy dams, cut water supplies or deliberately pollute waters. However, most actions happen in the form of political campaigns and protests.

Answer 32

This occurs when a river basin is transnational and where disputes over water and just one thing on the agenda for wider wars. An example of this is conflicts between Isreal and Palestine. Water is a major issue and Isreal refuses to accept that this scarce resource should be shared equally with Palestine, and insists on extracting over 2/3.

Answer 33

Yes, and they occur in similar areas to surface water ones. An example is between Isreal and Palestine over the use of mountain aquifers. Isreal has very advanced abstraction technology and is ‘sucking’ up all the water at the expense of water insecure areas of Palestine.

Answer 34

-Supplies are underground, meaning that it is difficult to understand the problem as it takes years for an effect to show. -The boundaries are very unclear underground. It is difficult to negotiate an equitable share for each nation to exploit as no one knows who owns what. -UN Legislation to sort out water sharing by aquifers between nations is only just being written.

Answer 35

A number of quite simple conflicts can occur within a country, for example over the building of a dam and water reservoir, as in Kielder, Northumberland, where there was concern over the flooding of a farming valley and villages. Some reservoirs, such as the badly needed reservoir for SE England, are so long disputed that they’ve not been built because of nimbyism. In a crowded area, there is always concern over environmental and socio-economic impacts.

Answer 36

“Not in my backyard!”, people protesting about developments which they see as detrimental to their own neighbourhood.

Answer 37

Use of the Jordan, specifically in Israel but also in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan, has reduced the flow of the river to a mere trickle. This also affects supplies to Palestine’s West Bank. Current intermittent wars.

Answer 38

The 6700km long river is the longest river in the world. It has two main sources: the White Nile, whose source is Lake Luviromza which then flows through Uganda and into Sudan, and the Blue Nile, which rises in the Ethiopian highlands. They join at Khartoum, where the river continues to flow northwards into the desert state of Egypt and on to its delta in the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile Basin covers about 10% of the African continent. Both humans and physical factors could trigger a conflict over its waters.

Answer 39

11 countries compete for the Nile’s water and yet, with a measured flow of 84billion m^3, the Nile has a very modest discharge compared to other great rivers of the world, for instance the Amazon and River Congo.

Answer 40

They’re linked to the North-South direction of flow through contrasting climate zones. 1)The White Nile provides a mere 30% of the flow measured at Aswan, Egypt. Despite the blue Nile’s catchment being small compared to the White Nile, heavy monsoon rainfall from July to September means that it is by far the greatest contributor to Lower Nile flows. The difference in the two major river regimes is very marked. 2) The seasonal variation in flows poses a key challenge to river basin planners and agriculturists, especially as it is susceptible to major inter-annual and decadal fluctuations brought about by El Niño and La Niña cycles, and climate change (possibly) in the future. The drought-flood cycles are an issue for Ethiopia and Sudan, and in the past for Egypt before the building of the Aswan High Dam. 3)Much of the river system is located in hot, arid areas where evaporation losses are high, especially in the Sudd area of Southern Sudan. Between entry to and exit from the Sudd Swamp, the While Nile loses 1/2 it’s flow. This leads to early summer water shortfalls for Egypt and Sudan when flows from the Blue Nile are at their pre-monsoonal low point. Egypt was very keen to sponsor the Jonglei Canal Scheme to speed up flow through the Sudd, so reducing evaporation loss. Despite the scheme starting in 1979, it still remains unfinished due to deteriorating relationships between Egypt and Sudan. It’s being revived as a part of the latest Nile Basin Initiative.

Answer 41

One of the key issues is that the Nile Basin is the large number of national borders which traverse it. Largely as a result of the European colonial era, these boundaries pay scant regard to the physical and human geography of the Nile Basin. Currently over 300million people live within the Nile Basin, but this is expected to double to 600million by 2030, placing a further pressure on water supplies for domestic and agricultural use. Egypt is dependent on the Nile for 95% of its water needs, but other states, such as Rwanda and Ethiopia, need large supplies of water to develop crop irrigation, HEP production and industrial processes in order to lift their nations and their people out of poverty.

Answer 42

There has to be underlying water scarcity issues (below 1000m^3 per person per year). While many African nations do not currently have physical water scarcity issues, many, such as Tanzania, have economic water scarcity issues whereby they lack the capital and technology to exploit supplies. Demand from growing populations and development combined with the impact of climate change means that of the Nile Basin countries, Burundi, Rwanda, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya and possibly Sudan will all potentially be water scare by 2025. This water scarcity will ultimately impact on food security, especially in countries such as Egypt, which already has high levels of virtual water use because of the need to import substantial quantities of food.

Answer 43

This was signed, giving 48billion cubic metres to Egypt and 4billion cubic metres to Sudan, only a mere 14% went to other African countries. As Egypt is the downstream nation, it was given the right of veto on any modifications in the use of the Nile’s water in the other 9 nations.

Answer 44

It was signed, giving 55.5billion cubic metres to Egypt and 18.5billion to Sudan, which meant effectively all water went to these two countries and the rest was left to evaporate. The increased allocation to Sudan represents the increased needs of the country for irrigation. This agreement was again signed by the colonial powers on behalf of upstream countries, which felt that all these countries had plenty of water from other sources. Ethiopia refused to recognise the legitimacy of the agreement.

Answer 45

Unfair allocation of the Nile’s waters. For example, in Ethiopia there is a major production of water but very low capture of the resources, in contrast to Egypt and Sudan, which have low internal renewable resources but high capture of the Nile’s waters.

Answer 46

This is the Nile Basin Initiative which emerged during the 1990s. Since 2005, 9 of the 10 Nile Basin countries have been exploring the development of the NBI in partnership with the key external agencies such as the World Bank to establish a common vision. Two subsidiary action plans, the Eastern Nile Program and the Nile Equatorial Lakes Program, have been established. Despite the good news that Egypt and Sudan are involved in the NBI, little was really achieved in spite of the funding of many worthwhile development projects.

Answer 47

Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda signed a new water treaty, with Burundi, DRC and Kenya promising to sign later. This treaty stated that all riparian countries should have equal rights to use the Nile Waters. While upstream countries have now urged Egypt and Sudan to sign and eventually agree to the treaty, much will depend on the politics of the Nile, with Egypt and Sudan now politically weaker and less well supported by powerful allies. Indeed, in current unipolar geopolitics, it is the neo-colonialism of China that is building all the schemes and dams, especially in Ethiopia.

Answer 48

It’s easy to state that there will be water wars in the 21st century and indeed, in some locations such as the Middle East, where existing conflicts are prevalent, this does seem increasingly likely. However, in the Nile Basin, where many of the ingredients are present the emphasis so far has been on co-operation. Some would argue that Egypt and Sudan are so politically weak with other wars that they have no spare capacity to fight the Nile war. It is possible that the common vision of the Nile Basin Initiative, which seeks to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development through the equitable usage of, and benefit from, the common Nile Basin resources, and peace, will prevail.

Answer 49

Social players see access to clean, safe water as a human right, whereas political players see water as a human need which, like food, shelter and energy, can be provided in a number of ways through market mechanisms (private), public services (government) or public-private partnerships (governments working with NGOs). The infrastructure of water provision is extremely costly, so governments have to find a mechanism to pay for it in order to satisfy the needs of their people. It was estimated that the meeting the UN’s target of halving the population without access to safe water supply and improved sanitation would cost over US$200 billion.

Answer 50

In order to keep pace with rising demand, business players favour hard engineering schemes such as mega dams, water transfer projects and clusters of desalination plants. Inevitability, these schemes have very high social and environmental costs, and are opposed by social and environmental players, who favour sustainable approaches. There are therefore a number of responses that can be made to manage future water supplies, with action at a variety of levels, ranging from large-scale projects funded by IGOs such as the World Bank, down to changing individual consumers’ attitudes to water use to encourage conservation at a local scale. The large projects usually employ to down approaches to ensure efficient delivery, which can disregard people’s wishes, where as more localised projects, such as sustainable WaterAid projects, tend to be bottom up, involving local people in their management, but sometimes with scaling-up difficulties.

Answer 51

In all cases, high levels of capital and technology are needed to carry out these projects. Economic costs are inevitably very high (multi-billion) and, while there are often economic benefits across a large area, questions have to be asked about the environmental and social costs.

Answer 52

Large-scale capital intensive development schemes, usually developed by governments.

Answer 53

Small-scale development schemes.

Answer 54

These involve the diversion of water from one drainage basin to another, either by diverting the river itself or by constructing a large canal to carry water from an area of surplus to an area of deficit.

Answer 55

In the UK, it is generally wet northwest and much drier south east - which has possibly been made even more true through climate change. A water grid has long been planned by ruled out due to the costs of the infrastructure, the energy-intensive Ned for pumping and, more recently, the difficulty in achieving co-operation between privatised water companies. With the population expected to rise in the SE by 1 million by 2025, an already water stressed area, transfers may become essential. Nevertheless, there are numerous inter-regional pipeline transfers - from Welsh reservoirs to Liverpool and Birmingham, from the Lake District to Manchester and many more.

Answer 56

The controversy lies in large-scale, high-tech transfer schemes. The engineering itself and the actual water transfer schemes have been successful, but there are many environmental and social disadvantages. Additionally, continues use of transferred water may lead to long-term changes to local and hydrological conditions, perhaps increasing flood risk, damaging fish stocks, spreading diseases and pollution, and acting as a pathway for introducing alien species into new river environments.

Answer 57

Nearly 60% of the world’s major rivers are impeded by large dams. Rivers such as the Colorado have been impeded, stored, rechanneled and re-engineered in a technological exercise to redesign natural flows for the benefit of humankind. Of the 845,000 worldwide dams in 2010, 5,000 could be considered mega dams. These mega dams have the facility to store 15% of the annual global run-off, which is theoretically a huge addition to the blue water component. However, evaporation losses are very high as many dams are located in semi-arid areas. In the 1980s, mega dams were seen as the panacea for the world’s water shortages and, through irrigation, for the food security issue - irrigated areas contribute for up to 16% of world food production. Many dams are also multi-functional, also carrying out other benefits such as creating HEP energy or helping with flood control.

Answer 58

-China is the world’s leading dam builder (46% of worlds total) and, as part of its FDI programme in Africa, is building many more huge dams. -With rising global concerns about global warming from greenhouse gas emissions, there is a move to produce more clean energy from renewables. -In developed countries, most of the most technologically attractive sites have been used, where as along rivers such as the Congo (Africa), there have been plenty of sites to construct dams, largely for HEP development to fuel economic growth.

Answer 59

The south of China is rich in water resources but the north is not. To redistribute these resources and to even out the availability of water, a gigantic south-north water diversion project was begun in 2003. It is expected to take 50 years to complete and the cost will be close to $100billion. The project involved building 3 canals that run 1300km across the eastern, middle and western parts of China and link the country’s four major rivers.

Answer 60

It will transfer a total of 44.8billion cubic metres of water per year. Central government will provide 60% of the cost of the scheme, and the rest will come from the local authorities, which, in tur, will charge domestic and industrial users. Water conservation, improved irrigation, pollution treatment and environmental protection are included in the plans.

Answer 61

Critics are concerned about the uncertainties and risks associated with the project. These include the likelihood of significant ecological and environmental impacts along the waterways, resettlement issues and worsening water quality. The Yangtze River is already severely polluted, and the water or the Yellow River is undrinkable. Some experts fear an ecological disaster.

Answer 62

There has been a global boom in desalination, which draws from supplies from the ocean as opposed to from the one percent of freshwater supplies available for use on Earth. It is, therefore, a sustainable process as it conserves supplies for future generations. Despite people have been desalinating water for centuries, recent breakthroughs in technology have made the desalination process far more cost effective, less energy intensive and easier to implement on large scales.

Answer 63

It is a costly option and also has a major ecological impact on marine life. Left-over water returned from the desalination process has twice the salt concentration as sea water does. Dumping it near the shoreline will have adverse consequences on coral reefs and their food webs.

Answer 64

Many of the countries involved are relatively well developed technologically and increasingly water stressed. The OPEC countries of Saudi, UAE, Kuwait and Libya have the additional advantage of cheap energy to distil fresh water from the oceans. Currently there are 14,000 desalination plants in the world, including one in the Thames Estuary.

Answer 65

Water sustainability is a major issue. Many of the world’s rivers are ecologically threatened as a result of human actions, which have polluted and damaged water supplies. The water is of poor quality and acts as a vector for water-borne diseases. Nearly 25% of the world’s people lack access to safe water, so environmental sustainability protects water quality.

Answer 66

It involved guaranteeing security of access to water for all groups at an affordable price. Interestingly, many schemes to manage rivers, such as mega dams, actually dispossess people of their land, homes and livelihoods. Privatised schemes to brung clean, safe water to millions often fail to deliver at affordable prices. Economic sustainability is also achieved by minimising wastage and maximising efficiency of usage, for example in irrigation.

Answer 67

This manages water supplies in such a way that it takes into account the views of all users, including the poor and disadvantaged people, and leads to equalities within and between countries.

Answer 68

Conservation of water supplies is one of the main thrusts of sustainable use of water as it manages demand. This can be done in a number of ways in various economic sectors. As agriculture is the main use of water supplies (especially for irrigation), there are many ways it can be made more efficient.

Answer 69

Following the mantra ‘more crop per drop’ where cash crops are grown, sprinkler and surface flood irrigation systems are steadily being replaced by modern automated spray technology and more advanced drip irrigation systems, which use less water. Isreal is a major pioneer of water conservation. Great savings can also be made by simply just repairing leaks in old irrigation systems.

Answer 70

There are numerous intermediate-technology solutions to water conservation, such as the ‘magic stones’ system practiced widely across the semi-arid Sahel. This is where lines of stones 5-10cm high are laid along the contours of a hill to prevent soil erosion and conserve soil moisture. Another example is using rain-fed agriculture more, and these schemes can cut water consumption by up to 30%.

Answer 71

Specialised NGOs like Farm Africa and WaterAid have helped farming communities develop a whole range of strategies to combat climate change-induced water scarcity. Farmers are trained in minimising tilling so that the water is conserved in a layer of mulch on the fields surface, which absorbs the rainwater and limits evaporation. Agriculture advisers give guidance on types of crops that will generate good profits yet also use less water, for example substituting dry crops such as olives for thirsty fruits such as citrus fruits.

Answer 72

Not only is water an essential ingredient for many food and drink products, but it is also used in a range of other industries such as making silicon chips and for cooking thermal power stations. For many companies, it is also not the quantity of water they use, but the quality of water they release to reduce contamination of water. Many TNCs, for example Coca Cola, have reduced their water consumption. For example, Coca-Cola bottling plants around the world committed to clean all their water water by 2010 and recycle some of it as grey water, for machinery and cleaning bottles.

Answer 73

We can reduce consumption by the installation of smart meters, which can monitor the use and make higher charges in stress periods such as dry summer. Rain harvesting using a system of water butts is a further conservation measure in the garden. Strategies such as sharing a bath, or using an eco-kettle can also help to cut down on consumption. In times of drought, there can also be measures such as hosepipe bans. The use of recycled water can be encouraged for flushing the toilet as well as water plants with left-over washing-up water.

Answer 74

Filtration technology now means that there is very little dirty water that cannot be purified and recycled. Faced with the loss of cheap imports of water from Malaysia, Singapore has followed a path to water self-sufficiency.

Answer 75

They use artificial rain catchments combined with treating sewage water. Water cleaned by a combination of dual membrane technology and ultraviolet disinfectant produces water that exceeds WHO quality thresholds. It is marketed as Newater and is now a key source of supply for the densely populated island. In some places 30% of Singapore’s drinking water is from Newater. However, it is no word of a lie that a psychological barrier has to be overcome on drinking water from toilets - another attitudinal fix.

Answer 76

This is a thrust towards the more sustainable management of water through the restoration of damaged rivers, lake and wetlands. A number of management strategies are being used to return water environments to their natural state.

Answer 77

This can involve restoring meanders, replanting vegetation and using sustainable methods to manage water courses and provide an alternative environment for all users.

Answer 78

The US Army Corps of Engineers have finished the restoration of the Kissimmee River in Florida. More than 100 km^2 of river channel have been successfully restored. Equally successful has been the partial restoration of the marsh area in South Iraq deliberately drained by Saddam Hussein.

Answer 79

In spite of the potential for hostilities over shared waters, particularly in retaliation against ‘greedy’ upstream behaviour, international co-operation is far more often the rule than the exception, with actual military conflict occurring in only 0,5% of all drainage Basin disagreements over river use in the last 60years. This is the more optimistic scenario than the water wars predicted by many students of hydro politics. Even nations that are traditionally enemies are sharing river basins, for example India and Pakistan. The Indus Water Treaty, agreed in 1960, has been honoured in spite of the two countries going to war twice since its signing.

Answer 80

As a continent, Africa has the most politically dispersed rivers and lakes (90% of all surface water in this continent is in trans-boundary basins). Even the Nile Basin initiative is moving towards sharing the water more equitably between Egypt and Sudan, as well as the other upstream countries. Co-operation has occurred over a whole range of issues.

Answer 81

There is a general agreement that international treaties must include concepts such as ‘equitable use’, and ‘equitable shares’, and they must also be applied to whole drainage basins, not single countries. Some things that the water criteria must be based on include: -Natural factors - rainfall amounts, discharge along water sources, share of drainage basin, impact of climate change -Social and economic needs - population size, welfare of people, development plans -Dependency - availability of alternative sources.

Answer 82

UNECE water convention promotes joint management and conservation of shared freshwater ecosystems in Europe and neighbouring regions. It was followed by various EU water frameworks and directives on issues of pollution and hydropower. The UN water courses convention offers guidelines on the protection and use of transboundary rivers.

Answer 83

Players can reduce the conflict risk at all scales. At a global scale, the UN sets rules such as the Helsinki or Berlin Frameworks. However, this concerns NGOs such as the WWF as these frameworks are not registered. Locally, a range of players are involved in IWRM including planners, environmentalists, water companies and water users, to minimise conflicts and develop co-operation.

Answer 84

-It was designed to control flooding on the Yangtze, improve water supply by regulating river flow, generate HEP and make the river navigable. -

Answer 85

It enables surplus water to build up and be diverted to northern China via the South-North Water Transfer project. -It also generates electricity which is critical to China’s growth.

Answer 86

-Controversial and very expensive -Over 600km of land was flooded to form the reservoir. -1.3 million people had to be relocated to form the Dam. -The reservoir has a low water quality, because waste from industry, sewage and farms enters from upstream. -Decomposing vegetation in the reservoir produces methane, which is released when water passes through the HEP turbines.

Answer 87

For most of the 20th century, Californians depended on water from the Colorado river. Numerous treaties were made to allocate ‘fair shares’ of the Colorado water to the surrounding seven US states as well as Mexico. Since the 1992 agreement (where population was lower and average rainfall was 10% higher, new agreements have had to be made to suit new needs.

Answer 88

-In 2007, a new agreement was reached. Instead of sharing Colorados waters the seven US states divide up the shortages. The amount on water available determines supplies to each state. California has reduced the amount it extracts by 20%. -In 2012, an agreement between the USA and Mexico was formed. It gave Mexico the right to store some of its Colorado River water in Lake Mead. In return, water providers in the Colorado Basin will be able to purchase water conserved in the Lakes, through better Canal and storage infrastructure.

Answer 89

-Desalination provides a reliable and predictable supply of water. -Five plants were opened by 2013, taking water directly from the Mediterranean Sea. -Aims to supply 70% of Israel’s domestic water supply by 2020. -They will produce 600tonnes of potable water per hour.

Answer 90

-Each plant requires its own power station and adds to CO2 emission, however lots of the energy comes from solar energy. -They produce vast amounts of salt/brine, containing anti scaling agents that harm ecosystems.

Answer 91

The Water Framework and Hydropower for the EU. They set targets to restore rivers, lakes, canals and coastal waters to ‘good condition’. The framework was a policy requiring basin-wide assessments of all risks to natural environment ps posed by new developments.

Answer 92

Australia. Their regulated smart irrigation of fruit trees increased water productivity by approximately 60%, with a gain in fruit quality and no loss in yield. Controlled irrigation, such as drip-feed, ensures that water goes directly into the soil next to the roots of crops, which prevents evaporation loss.

Answer 93

Singapore. It is only home to 5.4million people and a small country. Traditionally Malaysia (who neighbour Singapore) has supplied 80% of their water, but this fell to 40% by 2010. -Their per capita water consumption fell from 165 to 150lites per day from 2000 to 2015, thanks to metering water and educating the public. -Leakages have been cut to 5% (still 20% in the UK) -Subsidies to protect the poorest from expensive water. The whole of Singapore is a harvesting catchment (another flashcard).

Topic 5 - EQ3 Flashcards

(117 cards)