Topic 6: EQ2 Flashcards
1
Q
Why is having an energy mix important?
A
No country on earth will depend on just a single source for its energy, a mix is required. This will depend on what is available most easily, cheaply, effectively or securely.
2
Q
What are the different types of energy resources?
A
-Primary and secondary
-Domestic and overseas
-Renewable and non-renewable and recyclable
3
Q
What is the difference between primary and secondary energy resources?
A
Primary resources are those which are consumed in their raw form. These include burning fossil fuels, nuclear energy and renewable sources (solar, wind and wave energy).
Primary sources can also be used to generate electricity, which is a secondary energy source. It flows through power lines and infrastructure to power homes and businesses.
4
Q
What is the difference between domestic and overseas sources?
A
Despite economic and population growth, energy consumption in the UK has decreased from 1998 to 2015 because of the adoption of energy-saving technology. More also came from renewable energy.
Declining domestic North Sea oil and gas reserves have made the Uk increasingly dependent on imported energy. The UK now imports more than it produces, and is therefore in an energy deficit and is energy insecure. It is extremely reliant on countries such as Norway and those in the Middle East for oil and gas, which puts the UK at risk if there are external shocks (E.g conflicts in OPEC countries)
5
Q
What is Russia an example of?
A
An energy secure country. This is because they produce more energy domestically than they import.
6
Q
What is a non-renewable energy source?
A
E.g coal, oil and gas. Also known as finite reserves, the use of these stocks will eventually lead to their exhaustion.
7
Q
What are renewable energy resources?
A
E.g Solar, wind and wave energy. These are continuous flows from nature, and can be constantly reused.
In 2015, renewable resources accounted for 25% of the UK’s electricity generation. The first year it produced more electricity than coal did.
8
Q
What is recyclable energy?
A
E.g reprocessed uranium and plutonium from nuclear power plants and heat recovery systems.
9
Q
Why is energy essential to modern day economies?
A
-Powers most transport
-Lights our settlements
-Warms and cools our homes
-Drives manufacturing
-It’s vital to communications
10
Q
What is energy security?
A
Energy security refers to the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price. It has many aspects, for example:
-Long term energy security deals with timely investment to supply energy in line with economic development and environmental needs.
-Short term energy security is crucial to react to sudden changes in balance between the energy supply and demand.
11
Q
What is the energy mix?
A
This is the combination of different available energy sources used to meet a country’s total energy demand. The exact proportions or mix vary from country to country. It is an important component of energy security.
12
Q
What factors impact the consumption of energy?
A
-Physical availability
-Technology
-Cost
-Economic development
-Climate
-Environmental Policies
13
Q
How does physical availability affect a nation’s energy mix?
A
If a certain energy source has to be imported rather than produced domestically, transport costs will higher, and therefore those sources which have to be imported from afar are less likely to be used.
Similarly, if domestic sources are expensive and difficult to extract, these may also not play a big role in a nation’s energy mix.
14
Q
How does technology affect consumption/extraction of energy?
A
Modern tech can help reach those not so accessible energy resources, such as fossil fuels stores deep underground. Despite making extraction easier, technology is also often energy thirsty, which can drive up our everyday energy usage.
15
Q
How does cost of energy affect consumption?
A
Energy production has many separate costs including physical exploitation, processing and delivery to the consumer. If these costs are low, their consumption is likely to rise.
16
Q
How does economic development affect energy consumption?
A
Costs are, of course, relative. What one country deems and acceptable cost may be too high to another through the perception of government and public. The higher economic development, the less sensitivity to energy costs.
Similarly, the more economically developed may have more incentive to use cleaner energy sources.
17
Q
How does climate affect energy consumption?
A
Places which get extreme temperatures in either direction (e.g Middle East or Russia) will use ,ore energy to maintain building temperature. Anomalies in this may be due to lack of economic development (e.g low energy usage in Africa despite the heat).
18
Q
What is ‘tonnes of oil equivalent’?
A
This is a unit which is designed to include all forms of energy by comparing them with oil in terms of heat output. It measures each type of energy by calculating the amount of heat obtained by burning one tonne, and then converting it to however much oil would be required to produce an equivalent amount of energy.
19
Q
How has oil changed its % of energy mix in the UK from 1980-2012?
A
38% of energy mix to 32.5% in 2012.
Despite the discovery of oil reserves in the North Sea in 1970, it has lately became very expensive and energy intensive to extract what remains. Therefore, when global oil prices fall (e.g in 1998), extraction becomes less attractive.
UK gov goals to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030 also have caused a decrease.
20
Q
How has gas changed its % of energy mix in the UK from 1980-2012?
A
19% (1980) -> 40% (2012)
Gas extraction from the North Sea heavily increased since the discovery of its reserves in the UK’s waters. Gas is also considered the ‘cleanest’ hydrocarbon, and due to its essential role in providing energy for homes, it’s uptake has increased. New technology has also aided in its extraction from the deeper reserves.
21
Q
How has coal changed its % of energy mix in the UK from 1980-2012?
A
34% (1980) -> 15% (2012).
In the 1900’s, the UK was heavily dependent on domestic coal. Even though 150 years worth of coal is now left in the UK, this is deep underground and extraction would be time consuming and expensive. Deep coal is also considered ‘dirty’, and doesn’t burn as efficiently.
Increased cost of transport for imported coal also reduced its usage.
22
Q
How has renewable energy changed its % of energy mix in the UK from 1980-2012?
A
≈5% in 1980 to ≈4% in 2012.
The commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emission by 40% has meant a possible uptake in the amount of renewable energy.
The UK is limited in many ways for renewable energy, with a lack on sunlight to make solar energy cost effective (apart from in Dorset) , and HEP already in place where effective means more cannot be added.
There is investment into wave and wind energy on the South Coast.
23
Q
How has nuclear energy changed its % of energy mix in the UK from 1980-2012?
A
6% (1980) to 9% 2012
-Despite the UK being among global leaders in nuclear power in 1970, the discovery of the North Sea’s reserves halted this progress. However, there is now a nuclear renaissance to increase nuclear energy again (e.g the construction of Hinckley Point C, Somerset).
Now, there is a lot of nimbyism surrounding nuclear energy, and the fact that it is extremely costly is making progress slow.
However, the UK does have aims to diversify energy mix and this includes plans to have more nuclear energy, known as the nuclear renaissance.
24
Q
How has oil changed its % of energy mix in Norway from 1980-2010?
A
51% to 33.5% of energy mix
Norway now exports lots of its fossil fuels which are extracted domestically to make funds for a future which is 100% renewable energy resources. The North Sea’s reserves means that oil usage still makes up 1/3 of the energy mix.
This will also reduce as Norway also committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030.
25
How has gas changed its % of energy mix in Norway from 1980-2010?
0% to 20%
The main cause for this increase is technology making the extraction from the North Sea much more of a viable option.
HEP can only produce so much energy, so at least I the short term, rising demand for energy has to be met somehow,
26
How has coal changed its % of energy mix in Norway from 1980-2010?
6.5% (1980) to less than 1.5% (2010).
With similar reasons to why Norway exports lots of its oil, much of the coal produced domestically is also exported. Declining availability in the Svalbard also makes extraction more expensive and the coal is less efficient.
Norway is the 3rd largest exporter of hydrocarbons, and aims to be carbon neutral by 2050.
27
How has hydropower changed its % of energy mix in Norway from 1980-2010?
42.5% to 40%
HEP has been used in Norway since 1970 due to the plentiful supply of mountainous slopes.
There are 600 HEP dams in Norway, and there are no available locations to build any more, therefore Norway cannot utilise HEP any more than the 97.5% of its renewable energy it already produces.
28
What is the UK’s level of economic development ?
GDP per capita (PPP) - US$41,000 (2015)
Energy use per capita - 2752kg oil equivalent (2014).
Average annual household energy cost - £1300 (2015)
29
What is Norways level of economic development?
GDP per capita (PPP) - US$61,000 (2015)
Energy use per capita - 5854kg oil equivalent (2014).
Average annual household energy cost - £2400 (2015)
30
What is an energy pathway?
This is the route taken by any form of energy form it’s source to its point of consumption. The routes involve different forms of transport, such as ships, pipelines and electrical transmission grids.
31
Who are the main players in energy pathways?
-TNCs
-OPEC
-Governments
-Consumers
32
What is the role of energy TNC’s in the energy pathway?
-To explore, exploit and distribute energy resources.
-To own supply lines and invest in distribution and the processing of raw materials, as well as electricity production and transmission.
-They respond to market conditions to secure profits for their shareholders.
Examples include old players such as Shell and BP, or newer players such as Russia’s Gazprom.
33
What is OPEC’s role in energy supply and the energy pathway?
-They aim to co-ordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its members, to ensure the stabilisation of oil markets in order to secure:
-An efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers.
-A steady income for producers
-A fair return for those investing in the industry.
34
Who are OPEC?
The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries is a permanent inter-governmental organisation (IGO).
All its members are oil producing and exporting countries, like Saudi Arabia, where oil is their main (or only) export. This makes it vital for their social and economic well-being.
OPEC controls 81% of proven oil reserves between the involved nations.
35
What are some examples of how OPEC works?
In the past, OPEC set oil production quotas to respond to economic conditions - boosting supply when prices rise and cutting supply when prices fall.
However, from 2012-16, maintaining high supply kept prices low, and this was most likely to stay competitive with the US oil market, which saw an increase in output due to fracking, and this lowered global prices.
36
What is the role of the national government for energy supply and the energy pathway?
-To meet international obligations, whilst securing energy supplies for the nation’s present and future, as well as supporting the country’s economic growth.
-They also set regulations for the role of private companies, setting environmental priorities.
37
What are examples of the impact national governments can have on energy supply and the energy pathway?
-EDF (France) and China General Nuclear are two gov-backed energy TNCs involved in the development of new nuclear power plants in the UK (e.g Hinckley Point C)
-EU governments aim to fulfil CO2 emissions targets and reduce fossil fuel dependency
-Norway has the Sovereign Wealth Fund to aim to become fully reliant on renewable energy to supply its energy mix in the future.
38
How do consumers play a role in the energy supply/pathway and what affects consumer attitudes?
-Consumers create the demand. They will often make their purchases based on the cheapest option out of substitute goods.
-Consumers do have some power over oil companies, for example through purchasing electric cars or installing energy panels. However, currently most solar energy plants in the EU and UK are only due to large government subsidies.
39
How can consumer actions positively affect the energy supply?
-The expansion of nuclear energy, as well as the extraction of oil and gas by fracking, are both controversial across the UK and EU. There has been widespread protests against both.
40
How has humans reliance on fossil fuels progressed?
Still today, we rely on fossil fuels for the greater part if it’s energy needs. Our use started in prehistoric times with fuelwood and potentially peat, which was followed by the coal era of the Industrial Revolution. However, oil took over as the major carbon fuel during the 20th century, and this is now being challenged by natural gas as the dominant fuel.
41
Is there a mismatch between the consumption and production of coal?
8 of the world’s leading coal producing countries are also in the leading coal consumers. China and USA are both the leading producers and consumers of coal, with China producing 3,650 million tonnes, and consuming 1,839 million a year.
The reason for this is that coal is difficult and expensive to transport, relative to its low energy density.
42
Is there a mismatch between the supply and demand of oil?
Well over 50% of global oil supply comes from the international groups of OPEC and North America. Similarly, despite Japan not being in the world’s leading oil producers, they import 4.2million barrels of oil per day.
Only USA, China and India are leading producers and importers. All other importers are predominantly industrialised nations in either Asia or Europe.
43
What causes oil’s high demand?
It is used heavily as fuel for transport, and unlike coal and gas it has no substitute, which means there is a deep global market and differences between consumers and producers.
Oil is also used to make plastics, fertilisers, deodorant and much more, causing it to become the most important source of energy since the mid 1950s.
44
Is there a mismatch between the supply and demand of natural gas?
Gas production is dominated by the USA (4,359,000 million m^3) as well as Russia. Although some leading producers are also in the leading importers (e,g Russia and USA), there is a widespread mismatch of supply and demand, with developed European nations such as Germany and the UK, as well as Japan being high on the imports leaderboard.
45
What causes natural gas to have high demand?
Gas can be easily transported through pipelines, and can be liquified to make it easy to transport large distances (e.g Qatar to the UK). It is highly demanded as for developed nations it is the main fuel source to heat homes, and benefits from having the highest energy density of all the fossil fuels.
46
Why are energy pathways necessary?
There are mismatches between supply and demand of fossil fuels, and the creation of energy pathways allow doe transfers between consumers and producers. This is reflected by a tension between physical and human geography. Physical geography determines the locations of energy resources, where as human geography determines where the resources are needed.
47
What is the pattern of global trade of coal?
3 of the largest producers (China, India, USA) also import coal. Australia and Indonesia export large quantities to China and India, as well as to Japan, South Korea and Taiwan.
48
What is the pattern of global trade of oil?
The energy pathways of oil are considerable. The Middle East is clear the number one producer, and this flows outwards to Asia, Europe and the USA. Despite the USA producing a significant amount, it also imports from the north of South America, West Africa and Europe. Russia predominantly exports to Europe, however there are also connections to China and some other Asian nations.
49
What is the pattern of global trade of gas?
These don’t differ significantly from oil. Gas can flow through pipelines or be liquified to be carried by ships. Russian gas is generally transported via pipes, where as that which comes from the Middle East is usually transported via sea.
50
What factors cause mismatch between energy supply and demand?
-Lack of development to be able to exploit and extract these resources (e,g Western Africa)
-Vast deposits being in remote locations (e,g Alaska)
-Some counties (Japan) have few domestic supplies, where as others (Russia) have a plentiful supply.
51
What factors can disrupt energy pathways?
-Militant action
-Natural Hazards
-Political conflict
-Piracy/chokepoints
-Proxy wars
-Supply control policies
52
How can piracy disrupt energy pathways?
In 2015, there were piracy attacks along the Strait of Malacca. This is a major choke point of oil and gas tankers, and gangs would seize ships for hostage payments. In 2009-15, there were over 500 attacks.
53
How can political conflicts disrupt energy pathways?
The Syrian conflict in the 2010s has involved Russia (and allies) against the USA and their allies. Both are involved in battle for control of Syrian territory, with a key reason being for the proposed construction of oil and gas pipelines through Syria to fuel Europe. Oil and gas are often the root of international tension, and proxy wars such as this for Syrian territory are common.
54
How can military action disrupt energy pathways?
Pipelines in Nigeria were bombed by militants in 2016, causing a loss of 300 000 barrels of crude oil a day.
55
How can natural hazards disrupt energy pathways?
A stormy 2013 winter saw UK gas reserves fall to enough for 6 hours worth a day, because storms paralysed an import pipeline.
56
What is a proxy war?
A proxy war is a war that is instigated by a major power that is not always directly involved in the fighting.
57
How can choke points cause disruption to energy pathways?
Choke points are areas of narrow sea channels or convergence where key transport routes can be easily disrupted (e.g the Strait of Malacca). If these choke points become blocked or threatened, energy prices can quickly see significant rises.
58
What are the 4 unconventional fossil fuels we need to know?
-Tar sands
-Oil shale
-Shale gas
-Deepwater oil
59
What are tar sands and how are they extracted?
They’re a mixture of clay, sand, water and bitumen.
They are mined and then injected with steam to make the tar less viscous so that it can be pumped out.
60
What is Oil Shale and how is it extracted?
They”re oil bearing rocks that are permeable enough to allow the oil to be pumped out directly.
They are either mined or shale is ignited so that the light oil fractions can be pumped out.
61
What is shale gas and how is it extracted?
It is a natural gas that is trapped in fine-grained sedimentary rocks.
It is extracted by fracking: where water and chemicals are pumped into the rocks to force the gases out.
62
What is deep water oil and how is it extracted?
This is oil and gas found well offshore and at considerable oceanic depths.
Drilling takes place from ocean rigs, and is already underway in the Gulf of Mexico and off Brazil.
63
What are the costs of exploiting Canada’s tar sands?
-Only profitable when the price of crude oil exceeds US$40 a barrel. Extraction costs $10-20 a barrel to extract bitumen, compared to $2 for conventional oil.
-Energy intensive - takes 1 barrel of conventional oil to produce 3 barrels of oil from tar sands.
-Roughly 3 barrels of water needed for ever barrel of oil produced,
-1.8million tonnes of toxic waste water per day
-Huge quantities of waste produced, 50% of tar sands are wasted
-Contributes to greenhouse gas emissions
-470km squared of taiga forest has been removed for extraction.
64
What are the benefits of exploiting tar sands?
-Provides an alternative source of oil.
-By 2030, it could meet 16% of North America’s oil needs
-Offers energy security for Canada and the USA. 28% of Canada’s oil is used in Canada, 70% is exported to the USA.
-Can serve as a temporary fuel until more renewable and cleaner energy sources become available.
-Environmental rules mean mining companies are required to reclaim land disturbed by extraction.
-Earns vital revenues for local and national economies.
65
Who are the key players involved in tar sand production?
Governments - Canada national gov wants to promote extraction for energy security and economic development.
Oil companies - Companies such as BP and Shell say oil production has tremendous impacts on local economies.
-Environmental pressure groups (e,g green peace say it damages indigenous territories and forests in Alberta, Canada’
66
How have local communities benefited/lost out from Canada’s tar sands?
-Creates new jobs and local businesses benefit from increased trade
-Pollution of local rivers can increase incidence of rare cancers in the local communities.
-Traditional ways of life of indigenous people are disrupted, leads to gambling, substance abuse and crime.
-Now a housing crisis, thousands of workers have been shipped in.
67
What are the issues with tar sands extraction for the carbon cycle?
-Carbon emissions rise due to their extraction, production and use
-Carbon absorption falls due to deforestation (removal of the taiga).
68
What are the consequences of tar sand extraction on the environment?
-Opencast mining destroys forest and peat bogs, causing a loss of ecosystems and habitats. Despite only about 0,2% of Canada’s taiga forest being destroyed, this has major implications on the resilience of the environment.
-Waste materials from the soils and sands are dumped.
-Waste material ponds are created, which contain contaminated toxic waste water caused by oil extraction and processing.
69
What are the positives/negatives of oil shale?
-High temps are needed to release the oil, which is expensive and releases greenhouse gasses.
-Despite the USA having large reserves (≈800 billion barrels) there is little commercial development. Australian TNCs are planning to begin extraction in Alaska.
-Land and vegetation is disturbed, and there is over 1 tonne of waste rock from every oil barrel produced.
-Also air and water pollution issues.
70
What is the royal Dutch Shell companies plan to heat shale?
They have developed a plan to heat shale underground while surrounded by a ‘freeze-wall’, so that the kerogen seeps out into drilled holes for collection.
71
What are the cons of shale gas?
-Lowers local groundwater levels, and can lead to contamination of surface and groundwater sources.
-Methane gas leaks can contribute to the greenhouse affect and negatively impact the carbon cycle.
-Also a risk of minor earth tremors (e.g Blackpool in 2011).
72
What are the benefits of shale gas?
-Can help to cause a country to become more energy secure by reducing need for energy imports.
-Flexible energy source: in 2015 it overtook natural gas in the USA as the main generator of electricity, producing nearly 25% of all gas supply.
-Has 1/2 the size of the carbon footprint that coal does.
73
What are the pros of deep-water oil?
-Can help nations become more energy secure, Brazil found major reserves off of its coasts in 2006 (50-80 billion barrels)
- the USA plans on using reserves in the Alaskan Arctic to reduce its energy imports.
-Technological improvements are being made to make the use of deep-water oil safer.
-BPs Atlantis platform produces 200,000 barrels of oil and 5.1 million metres cubed of gas per day.
74
What are the cons of deepwater oil production?
-The gases and oils are highly toxic, flammable and explosive. This can cause major ecological disasters such as in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010.
-Off of the coast of Brazil, once scenic views are now polluted with large oil rigs and drilling sites.
-Risk of hurricanes and the energy produces has to travel for miles through underground pipelines (very expensive).
-Companies trying to cut costs has led environmental groups to believe the risk of future oil spills is increasing.
75
Facts of Canada’s Tar Sands production…
-Reserves of 166 billion barrels exist in three areas covering 142,200 km squared.
-220km squared of contaminated water
-151,000 jobs created
-Will give the Canadian economy US$4trillion between 2015-35.
-US$18 billion given in compensation from oil businesses to indigenous people, but this is considered too little.
76
What are hydrogen fuel cells?
Hydrogen fuel cells combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and pure water. As long as it is supplied with the fuel of hydrogen, it will never lose its charge.
Despite hydrogens high abundance, it isn’t found naturally as an element on its own, but it combined with other elements such as carbon. Once separated, however, it can be used in fuel cells.
77
What are hydrogen fuel cells used for?
They are most commonly a promising technology for use as a source of heat and electricity for buildings, or as a power source for electrical vehicles, such as the car produced by Toyota in 2015, California).
78
What are the cons of hydrogen fuel cell energy?
-The processes to separate hydrogen from its natural compounds require large amounts of energy and may release greenhouse gases.
-Hydrogen tanks must be very strong to withstand impacts and not explode.
79
What are the pros of hydrogen fuel cells?
-Hydrogen is high energy, and the only by-product is pure water.
-Hydrogen could become an important energy carrier in the future
-Far more energy efficient than petrol/diesel cars
80
What is carbon capture and storage?
This system collects CO2 emissions from fixed points such as power plants, and then stores the gas over 800m below ground.
The only current example is in Canada, which cost US$1.3billion and is to capture emissions from a coal-fired power plant. It will reduce emissions by up to 90%, and the carbon stored underground will be sold to nearby oil companies to make the scheme economical.
81
What are the cons of carbon capture and storage (CCS)?
-There is no guarantee that the carbon will actually remain underground, as it could gradually leak to the surface.
-Storing gas underground at high pressures faces the risk of possible seismic activity being created.
-Due to the incredibly advanced technology used, the construction and maintenance of CCS plants are extremely expensive.
-They may increase water usage, which will harm the human environment.
82
What are the pros of Carbon capture and storage?
-Theoretically, CCS could cut global CO2 emissions by up to 19%.
-Will provide climate benefits and lower pollution
-The IPCC says power generation without CCS must be phased out by 2100 to reach climate targets.
-Could extend the use of fossil fuels and encourage greater efficiency.
83
What is bioenergy combined with CCS (BECCS)?
This is something which can be combined with carbon capture and storage, to capture CO2 produced during bioenergy production and ensure there is a net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere.
84
How are electric vehicles being used to reduce carbon production?
Using electric vehicles instead of traditional diesel and petrol vehicles with significantly decrease the carbon emissions produced by transport.
85
Where are electric vehicles being used?
They’re used all over the world, but most prominently in developed nations such as Norway, the USA, UK and Japan. This is because the countries have companies (e.g Tesla) who can afford to invest into R&D, but also a population of people who can afford to spend upwards of £25,000 on an electric car.
86
What are the pros of electric vehicles?
-Massively reduce air pollution as well as noise pollution
-Much cheaper to recharge an electric car than it is to refuel a petrol/diesel car.
-Developments means that their range on a full charge has now reached as high as 340 miles.
-Public charging infrastructure is becoming more widely available
87
What are the cons of electric vehicles?
-The electricity generated to fuel these electricity cars may be produced by the burning of fossil fuels, defeating the point of electric cars. This will depend on the energy profile of the country. Paraguay is good for electricity, generating the electricity through HPE energy.
-The initial cost of the car is much higher than that of a petrol/diesel car.
-Despite there being 60,000 registered electric vehicles in London (2015), there were only 3,919 public charging points (19.7% of the UK’s total). Regions like Wales suffer immensely from the sparsity, with only 3% of the UK’s total charging points.
88
How has Tesla developed?
They have manufactured electric vehicles since 2008, and their 3rd model which was released in 2016 received 276,000 orders within the first 3 weeks. Demand is so high it is not known if the TNC will be able to completely meet demand.
89
What is biomass?
Biomass is organic matter used as a fuel, especially in power stations for the generation of electricity.
90
What is biofuel?
This is a fuel derived immediately from living matter, such as agricultural crops, forestry or fishery products, and various forms of waste (municipal, food shops, catering etc).
91
What are primary biofuels?
These include fuelwood, wood chips, and pellets, as well as other organic materials that are used in an unprocessed form. They’re usually used for heating, cooking, or electricity generation.
92
What are secondary biofuels?
These are derived from the processing of biomass and include liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel, which can be used by vehicles and in industrial processes.
93
How are biofuels being used in Brazil?
-Sugar cane has been grown in Brazil for almost 500 years, and now Brazil is the worlds biggest producer of ethanol from sugar cane.
-Bio-refineries produce the equivalent of 930,000 barrels of oil per day, and this provides 16% of domestic energy supply, which greatly enhances energy security.
94
What are the socioeconomic benefits of Brazil’s biofuels?
-Industry is worth US$500billion a year
-Created 1.34 million jobs directly.
-Remained important during 1980 recession due to lower prices than crude oil.
-Pays workers better than traditional agricultural jobs and is more formalised.
-Improves global export connections, with 1.35 million litres being exported in 2016, mainly to the USA and South Korea.
95
What are the environmental benefits of Brazil’s biofuel use?
-Most cars and light vehicles are now built using ‘flex-fuel’ engines, and can therefore run on ethanol mixtures.
-Ethanol production expanded due to greater efficiency and productivity rather than an increase in land area, so the rainforest isn’t deforested.
-Provides 7.2% of their overall electricity generation.
-produces 8-10x more energy than inputs needed to grow it, and reduced greenhouse gasses by 90%.
96
What are the issues with biofuels in Brazil?
-The ethanol industry struggled to compete when subsidies were cut and taxes on fossil fuels were decreased to try and control inflation.
-However, despite sugar cane subsidies being removed since the 1990, strong links were formed between sugar cane producers, ethanol producers and distributors, to ensure production remained competitive. Petrol subsidies were also removed.
97
What is the issue with increasing sugar cane production in Brazil?
Other types of agriculture become displaces, such as cattle farming. In order to make the new space for the cattle, there has been a large-scale clearance of the tropical rainforests, potentially cancelling our the reduction in carbon dioxide of these biofuels.
98
What are the strengths of biofuels?
-A renewable energy source
-Lower emissions than fossil fuels
-Bio-degradable
-Easy grown and require little specialist equipment
-Can provide large amounts of revenue and job opportunities
-Output increases can be due to increases in efficiency, not necessarily more forest clearance
-Some biofuels are produced from waste of other agricultural processes (e,g straw), so no land is used for crop growth.
99
What are the opportunities for the future use of biofuels?
-Provides rural investment and local development projects
-Positive multiplier effects in rural regions
-Fuel earns export income
-TNCs can provide infrastructure improvements
-Can help increase a countries energy security
-Second generation biofuels produce much lower levels of CO2 than regular biofuels.
100
What are the weaknesses surrounding biofuels?
-The production is climate dependent, and therefore climate change could cause significant threats to production.
-Some biofuels, such as rapeseed, produce more CO2 than burning fossil fuels
-Fuels are required to ‘kickstart’ the burning process. Usually natural gas is used to provide this, but in North Yorkshire coal is used to start a chipwood burning site, releasing massive CO2 emissions.
-Takes land from food production
-Needs pesticides and fertilisers, which use fossil fuels in production.
-Requires large volumes of water
-Forests can be cleared to make space, meaning a loss of a carbon sink and increases CO2 in the atmosphere.
-Prices of farmland are inflated, which causes rural inequalities. Area of land needed has doubled, being brought by American and Swiss firms.
101
What threats are posed by biofuels?
-They take investment away from food production
-Contaminates water resources with fertilisers and pesticides
-Food shortages lead to higher food prices.
102
Is there an opportunity for biofuels in Africa?
Extensive areas of Africa are suitable for bio-ethanol or bio-desiel crops. However, there are concerns about using land which people need for food and water. It could also cause forest loss as subsistence farmers and rural communities would need to find space for new homes, taking away from the ‘carbon neutral’ idea.
103
How has biofuel production caused deforestation in Peru?
72% of new palm oil plantation was in forested areas. Between 2000-10, this accounted for 1.3% of the country deforestation.
104
What different dimensions need to be considered when we talk about ‘costs’?
-Social costs
-Environmental costs
-Economic costs
105
Who are the 4 key players in the harnessing of unconventional fossil fuels?
-Exploration companies
-Environmental groups
-Affected communities
-Governments
106
What factors mean that renewable energy sources may not be the saviour of the global energy challenge?
-There are very few, if any, countries where renewables might completely replace all the energy currently derived from fossil fuels. The most likely of these will be good hydro resources.
-Falling oil prices means that renewables become a less attractive option.
-Significant environmental impacts can be seen by the implementation of these resources.
-NIMBYism
107
How is the UK committing to reducing fossil fuel emissions?
In 2015, 47% of UK energy was generated by renewable and nuclear energy, they want to improve this further by….
-Increasing renewable energy
-Developing a new generation of power stations (e.g Hinkley Point C)
-Reducing energy use through technologies such as LED bulbs.
-Recycling energy which would normally be wasted.
108
What are the negatives of wind energy?
-Initial installation costs are high
-Average wind speeds must be over 7m/s for a reasonable rate of return
-Many of these high wind areas are far from urban populations, meaning transport costs are high
-Nimbyism causes protests over the ugly site and noise, also can kill birds and bats.
109
What are the benefits of wind energy?
-They have a low maintenance cost
-Emission free
-Largest turbines can power up to 5,000 homes
-Huge potential in Northern Europe and the UK due to high winds and dense populations.
-Can be combined with other energy sources through forecasting to ensure there is a contrast energy supply. These other sources could, however, produce fossil fuels.
-Offshore wind farms are 2x as expensive, more more efficient and have non-turbulent wind.
110
What are the benefits of solar energy?
-They are quickly becoming the cheapest way of producing energy, and by 2050 could be the world’s biggest source of electricity.
-No emissions are produced
-Can be linked well to other sources of energy
-Flexible and modular, which means it can be used on the roofs of buildings or in solar power stations
-Extremely effective at high altitudes e.g Tibetan plateau and low latitudes where sunlight is intense.
111
What are the negatives associated with solar energy?
-They take up valuable farmland, which people say should be used to produce food in a time of rising global food costs.
-Will have very high transport costs if not located close to the national grid
-Gives a bad look to natural landscapes.
-Weather dependent, and cannot produce energy in the dark.
-Hasn’t been enough R&D into the methods used to store energy.
-Isn’t effective in cloudy climates or polar latitudes.
112
What are the benefits of nuclear energy?
-Toxic waste is stored safely in deep holes, rather than released into the atmosphere as with fossil fuels
-Reduces CO2 emissions compared to fossil fuels and is actually a relatively clean energy source.
-New technologies can help make the source even cleaner.
-Thorium can be used as a potential source in the future
-Recyclable energy source, waste can be used to produce more energy.
-Despite some high-profile disasters, actually is relatively safe and has saved lives compared to if other energy sources were used.
113
What are the costs of nuclear energy?
-Many nuclear technologies are outdated, with most innovations projects ending in 1990.
-Can aid the production of nuclear weapons
-Nuclear waste is harmful and contains toxic chemicals such as plutonium
-Securely storing the toxic nuclear waste is an extremely difficult task
-Can cause major nuclear disasters such as Fukushima
-Due to the technology being not only very advanced, but also very expensive, the nuclear energy tends to only be available to the most economically developed nations.
114
What is an example of nuclear power?
Hinkley Point C in the UK, which has a strike price of £92.50/MwH. It is a £18 billion project and will provide energy for 60 years, as well as creating 25 000 jobs. Includes investments from French and Chinese investors.
115
What is the strike price?
This is the minimum price per mega-watt hour (MwH) which is guaranteed by the government.
For biomass this is £80/MwH
Solar energy: £50-80MwH
Wind energy: £115-120MwH
116
What is an example of wind power energy?
Hornsea Project 1 - a 190m high wind turbine which will eventually provide power for a million homes once completed in 2020. It is located 121km off of the coast of Yorkshire, and will create 2000 construction jobs.
117
What is an example of solar power energy being used?
Chapel Lane Solas Farm, Christchurch. Costing £50million and covering the equivalent of 175 football pitches, it is the UK’s largest solar farm. Serves 60 000 households, 75% of the homes in Bournemouth.
