TOPIC 8: MEMORY Flashcards
(89 cards)
1
Q
Predominant view of memory
A
- a form of information processing; applies metaphor
- comprised of different structures (sensory,short-term, &long-term memories) and processes (encoding,storage, &retrieval)
2
Q
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968):
A
The Modal Model
3
Q
- Sensory Memory
A
Sperling (1960):
Part I:
Part II:
4
Q
part I:
A
flashed matrix of letters on screen for 50 ms:
- total recall rate: ~50%
5
Q
Part II:
A
matrix flashed on and off / delay / tone presented
- brief delay: tested recall for desired row ~100%
- accuracy declined as delay increased
- implied complete image was temporarily stored
6
Q
Iconic memory
A
very accurate, very brief visual sensory memory
7
Q
echoic memory
A
auditory-based sensory memory
8
Q
- Short-Term Memory (STM)
A
George Miller (1956): STM capacity
- measured withdigit-span task - STM capacity = “The Magical Number seven, Plus or Minus Two”
However, more recent work (Baddeley, 1994; Cowan, 2001) puts practical STS capacity at four, plus or minus one.
- chunking
9
Q
digit-span task
A
list of numbers presented; recite them in the order of presentation
10
Q
chunking
A
combining items into meaningful units reduces amount to be remembered
- applied in acronyms
11
Q
Peterson & Peterson (1959; also Brown, 1958)
A
STM duration
- subjects given three consonance and a three-digit number
- during retention interval, had to count backwards by 3s - after a certain amount of time, recall the three letters
12
Q
results of the Peterson and Peterson
A
STM fades in less than 20 seconds withoutmaintenance rehearsal
13
Q
maintenance rehearsal
A
repeating the stimuli
14
Q
Alan Baddeley (1976):
A
working memoryview of STM emphasizes processing of memories
- phonological loop
- visuospatial sketchpad
- episodic buffer
- central executive
15
Q
phonological loop
A
stores sound-based information
- has phonological store & subvocal rehearsal process
16
Q
visuospatial sketchpad
A
for solving problems “in your head”
- has visual cache & inner scribe
17
Q
episodic buffer
A
temporary storage to/from LTM; also integrates information from other components
18
Q
Central executive
A
attentional control system
- for coordinating the other functions
- switches between tasks, storage or retrieval strategies
- also transfers memory to/from LTM
19
Q
Serial Position Effect
A
- shows functional division between STM and LTM
- primacy
- recency
20
Q
primacy
A
earlier words recalled (are in LTM); due to greater rehearsal (Atkinson & Schiffrin, 1971)?
21
Q
recency
A
later words recalled (are in STM); delaying test wipes out recency
- middle words may receive interference from both earlier and later words
22
Q
- Long-Term Memory (LTM)
A
- capacity virtually unlimited
- duration may be unlimited–for some items, not all
23
Q
•Levels of Processing(Craik & Lockhart, 1972):
A
- gave participants list of words to remember
- different groups encoded words differently
• shallow encoding
• intermediate encoding
• deep encoding
- different groups encoded words differently
24
Q
• shallow encoding
A
based on appearance
25
• intermediate encoding
based on sound
26
deep encoding
based on meaning
- deeper processing enhances encoding
27
• elaborative rehearsal
- when encoding new memories, relate them to existing memories
- aids in memory consolidation
28
memory consolidation
formation of long-term memories
29
• self-reference effect
- the more meaningful some information is to you, the more likely you are to remember it
30
• visual images
- words that form visual images remembered best (i.e., concrete nouns vs. abstract concepts)
- words that form visual images remembered best (i.e., concrete nouns vs. abstract concepts)
- explained by dual coding theory
31
dual coding theory:
memory enhanced if encoded by meaning and images
32
• mnemonic devices
techniques to aid memory, often by visually associating to-be-remembered items with a known series of images
33
method of loci:
associate each item with locations in a familiar place (e.g., a “memory palace”)
34
peg-word system:
relate each item to a word that rhymes with a number (e.g., one is a bun, two is a shoe, etc.)
35
Storage
- spread of activation
| - semantic (or associative) networks
36
• semantic (or associative) networks:
related concepts in memory are interlinked
37
spread of activation:
thinking about one concept causes other, related concepts to become activated or “primed”
38
Types of Long-Term Memory
explicit (or declarative) memory
| • implicit (or nondeclarative) memory
39
explicit (or declarative) memory
conscious, intentional remembering of knowledge or an event
- episodic
- semantic
40
implicit (or nondeclarative) memory
unconscious retention in memory due to previous experience
- procedural
- conditioning
- priming
41
episodic:
life events
42
semantic:
general knowledge
43
- conditioning:
e.g., classical or operant
44
- priming:
presentation of a stimulus affects response to a subsequent one
45
- procedural:
skills, abilities
46
types of amnesia:
* retrograde amnesia
| * anterograde amnesia
47
• retrograde amnesia
inability to remember past episodic memories
48
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new explicit memories
49
Retrieval
- recall
- recognition
- isolation effect.
50
recall
reproducing previously encountered information from memory
51
recognition
identifying previously learned information
52
isolation effect
a distinctive stimulus will be better remembered
53
“flashbulb” memories:
especially strong, vivid, and detailed memories associated with unexpected, emotionally charged events
54
repeated recall:
- immediately following an emotional event, record a person’s experience and memories
- compare these to a surprise reassessment at a later time
55
are memories for saliant events and surroundings better then those for everyday events?
yes.
56
encoding specificity principle:
memory retrieval is enhanced when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions
57
- context- dependent memory:
depends on matching external cues
58
results of the Godden & Baddeley (1975): does context matter?
- recall best when retrieval context retrieval learning context
59
state-dependent memory:
depends on matching internal states
60
• forgetting curve
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885):
61
results from Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885):
- forgetting is rapid at first, then more gradual
- why? Nonsense is hard to remember
- also, recall depends on amount of time spent learning the list
62
• spacing effect
Underwood (1970):
63
Underwood (1970):
- participants practiced list of 42 nouns four times
* massed practice
* distributed practice
64
• massed practice:
information repeated in one long session
65
• distributed practice:
information repeated in separate sessions, with time in between
66
pseudoforgetting
information was not encoded in the first place, so was not forgotten
67
- decay theory:
memories fade with time
68
- interference theory:
memories compete with each other
69
decay:
performance will decline with time equally in both groups
70
interference:
sleep group will perform better than awake group
71
Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924): results
* sleep group had better recall
| * implies that interference is responsible for forgetting
72
Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924):
- subjects learned nonsense syllables
- tested after certain retention interval, up to 8 hours
- one group slept, other stayed awake
73
retroactive interference:
new info makes it harder to remember older info.
74
proactive interference:
already-learned info makes it more difficult to remember new info.
75
misinformation effect
information given after an event can distort the memory
76
misinformation effect:
information given after an event can distort the memory
77
Loftus:
memory is reconstructive; it is a “rebuilding” of reality, not an exact copy
78
ohnson & colleagues (1993):
source monitering:
79
source monitering
making attributions about the origins of memories, knowledge, or beliefs
80
source failure:
not knowing the source of a memory
81
source confusion:
misattributing the source of a memory
82
repression:
active submerging of a painful memory without conscious awareness
83
Freud (1901):
- considered repression to be the most powerful defense mechanism used by the ego to reduce anxiety
- not confirmed experimentally
84
false memory syndrome:
memory of traumatic experience which is objectively false, but in which the person strongly believes it to be true
85
Loftus & Pickrell (1995):
- participants were made to believe they had been lost in a shopping mall
- parents and family members kept reintroducing the topic into conversation
- researchers kept asking questions about the (false) event
- participants were initially uncertain about these memories, but gradually became more sure
86
results form the Loftus & Pickrell (1995):
* 29% of participants “remembered” false events
| * some even provided additional details about the event that never happened
87
Karl Lashley (1950): Where are memories stored?
- trained rats to run a maze, then removed sections of brain
- performance gradually deteriorated as more brain removed
- could not localize the engram (the physical trace of a memory)
- complex memories must be distributed
88
Eric Kandel & colleagues (1971): How are simple memories stored?
- studied Aplysia californica (sea slug): has large, few (20,000) neurons
- examined learning via habituation: decrease in response to a stimulus due to repeated stimulus presentation
- conditioned the gill withdrawal reflex: stimulation of siphon causes gills to be withdrawn into the body
- repeated jets of water produced habituation that lasted several hours
- however, multiple daily sessions produced change in behaviour that lasted weeks
- studied synapse between siphon sensory neuron and motor neuron for gill withdrawal
- found that more neurotransmitters was released
- other studies found increased sensitivity in postsynaptic neurons, requiring less neurotransmitter to be released
89
what does sensory memory allow?
the transfer of information to STM
