Topic 9 - Gender Flashcards

Question

A03 - research to suggest that sex hormones do exert some influence on gender-related behaviours.

Answer 1

The determining influence of chromosomes on gender identity is supported by the Case of David Reimer. In relation to sex hormones, James Dabbs et al. (1995) found, in a prison population, that offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. Stephanie Van Goozen et al. (1995) studied transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment and being injected with hormones of the opposite sex. Transgender women (male-to-female) showed decreased in aggression and visuo-spatial skills whilst transgender men (female to male) showed the opposite.

Answer 2

In a double blind study conducted by Tricker et al. (1996), 43 males were given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo. No significant differences in aggression were found after the ten-week period between the two groups. Similarly, Slabbekoorn et al. (1999) demonstrated that sex hormones had no significant effect on gender-related behaviour. It is also the case that many studies of biological factors in gender involve small samples of unusual people or are conducted on animals limiting the extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made.

Answer 3

Many commentators have questioned the effects of Oestrogen levels on a women's mood and object to the medical category pre-menstrual syndrome on the grounds that it stereotypes female experience and emotion. Feminist critiques (Rodin 1992) claim that PMS is a social construction – not a biological 'fact' but a way of privileging certain groups over others. Feminists have pointed to the medicalisation of omens lives and the dismissal of women's emotions, especially anger, by explaining them in biological terms.

Answer 4

If gender identity is purely down to biology then we would expect to find many more differences in male and female behaviour than there actually are. In a major review of research in this area, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) found significantly more differences in behaviour within the sexes than between the sexes. Alternative explanations such as the SLT would point to the importance of social context in the learning of our gender identity and gender role. The influence of social norms would explain cross-cultural differences in gender-role behaviour, and the fact that, in western society at least, males and females are gradually becoming more androgynous in their behaviour.

Answer 5

A psychiatric condition listed in the DSM-5. It is characterised by strong, persistent feelings (at least 6 months) of identification with the opposite gender, and discomfort with one’s own assigned sex. I.e. a mismatch between the biological sex and the gender identity (psychological experience of self as male or female). It must cause significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other areas of functioning. It is also referred to as transgenderism or gender dysphoria.

Answer 6

● Genetic factors – GID may have a genetic basis (it’s inherited) in that it may be transmitted from parent to child via genes ● Coolidge et al. (2002) assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ and 61 DZ) for evidence of gender dysphoria using the DSM-4. The prevalence of GID was estimated to be 2.3% with 62% of these cases said to be accounted for by genetic variance. ● Heylens et al. (2012) compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed with gender dysphoria. They found that nine (39%) of the MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria compared to none of the DZ. This provides support for genetic factors for gender identity disorder.

Answer 7

This is based on areas of male and female brains taking a different form (dimorphic). GID may be caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with (i.e. don’t match) the individual’s biological sex. Zhou et al. (1995) studied the BSTc (bed nucleus of stria terminalis – linked to emotional responses) which is assumed to be fully developed at age 5 and around 40% larger in males than females. Post- mortem studies of six male-to-female transgender individuals found the BSTc was a similar size to that of a typical female brain. Kruijver et al. (2000) studied the same brain tissue but focused on the number of neurons in the BSTc – and found the six transgender individuals showed a sex-reversed identity pattern with an average BSTc Neuron number in the female range.

Answer 8

● Ovesey and Pearson (1973) emphasises social relationships within the family as a cause of gender dysphoria. This is used to explain GID in males only. ● GID is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. The child fantasises a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety so that the danger of separation is removed. ● Therefore, the child becomes the mother and adopts a female gender identity (GID). Stoller (1973) reports that in interviews with GID biological males they were seen to display overly close relationships with their mothers.

Answer 9

● This explanation is based on gender schema theory and emphasises individual differences in gender identity. The theory suggests two pathways of gender development, the dual pathway theory (Liben and Bigler, 2002). ● The first pathway suggests the development of gender schema which then direct gender-appropriate attitudes and behaviour as part of ‘normal development’ as proposed by Martin and Halverson. ● The second ‘personal’ pathway describes how the child’s gender attitudes are affected by his or her activity. It suggests that GID occurs when a child’s personal interests (e.g. the toys they want to play with) become more dominant than the gender identity. These interests in turn influence gender schema. E.g. a boy who plays with dolls may come to believe that playing with dolls is for boys and girls. ● This leads to the development of non-sex-typed schema. In most people, this may result in androgynous behaviour and a more flexible attitude to gender, but in a small minority, it may lead to the eventual formation of an opposite gender identity (GID).

Answer 10

that a child’s mental concept or understanding (i.e. thinking) of gender (including what counts as appropriate gender roles, behaviours and attitudes) becomes more sophisticated with age.

Answer 11

Kohlberg’s (1966) theory of gender development is a cognitive-developmental one i.e. he suggests that a child’s understanding of gender (including what counts as appropriate gender roles, behaviours and attitudes) becomes more sophisticated with age. - It draws on the idea that the way we think (e.g. complexity and abstract thinking) changes and becomes more sophisticated as we get older because of physical changes in the brain. - The consequence of this is that gender development occurs in three stages (it’s a stage theory). Children naturally progress through the stages as their way of thinking matures. This happens gradually rather than sudden transitions and so the ages suggested by Kohlberg for each stage are approximate.

Answer 12

Age 3 ✔️ Age 5 ✔️ Age 7 ✔️

Answer 13

Age 3 ✔️ Age 5 ✔️ Age 7 ✔️

Answer 14

Age 3 ❌ Age 5 ✔️ Age 7 ✔️

Answer 15

Age 3 ❌ Age 5 ✔️ Age 7 ✔️

Answer 16

Age 3 ❌ Age 5 ✔️ Age 7 ✔️

Answer 17

Age 3 ❌ Age 5 ❌ Age 7 ✔️

Answer 18

A gender schema is an organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that help us to organise and interpret information in the brain. They guide us to understand our own gender and gender-appropriate behaviour.

Answer 19

The gender schema theory is a cognitive-developmental explanation of gender development that was proposed by Martin and Halverson (1981). It argues that gender-relevant information before gender constancy is achieved. Gender identity is enough for a child to identify themselves as a boy or girl and take interest in behaviours that are appropriate for their behaviour. Also suggests that acquiring a gender schema affects later behaviour, especially in terms of memory and attention.

Answer 20

2-3 years old.

Answer 21

(1983) found that children under 6 were more likely to remember photographs of gender-consistent behaviour than photographs of gender-inconsistent behaviour when tested a week later. Children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent activity when asked to recall them. Additionally, Martin and Little (1990) found that children under the age of four, who showed no signs of gender stability or constancy, demonstrated strongly sex-typed behaviours and attitudes about what boys and girls are allowed to do (sex-role stereotypes).

Answer 22

This theory can account for the fact that young children tend to hold very fixed and rigid gender attitudes. Information that conflicts with existing schema, such as the idea of women working on a building site, would be discounted or ignored in favour of information that confirms ingroup schema, such as a women working as a secretary. Similarly, children display a strong ingroup bias in terms of how they process information, and this is explained by the fact that children pay more attention to information that is relevant to their own experiences.

Answer 23

● Before the phallic stage, children have no concept of gender identity. ● Gender development occurs in the phallic stage of development (age 3-6 years) through resolution of either the Oedipus (boys) or Electra complex (girls). ● Resolving the complexes involves the child identifying with the same-sex parent (identification with the aggressor), and then internalising and adopting the gender-related attitudes and behaviours of the same-sex parent. ● Therefore, children receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage. ● Resolving the complexes also develops the superego as the child adopts the parent’s morals.

Answer 24

A desire to be associated with a particular person or group, often because they possess certain desirable characteristics.

Answer 25

When an individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviours of another.

Answer 26

Freud’s theory relies on the child having two parents of different genders, so they are able to manage the Oedipus and Electra complex effectively. Therefore, it is logical to assume that being raised in a non-nuclear family would have an adverse effect on a child’s gender development. Evidence doesn’t support this assumption. Golombok et al. (1983) found that children from single-parent families develop normal gender identities. Similarly, Green (1978) studied a sample of 37 children who were raised by gay and transgender parents and discovered that only one had a gender identity that was described as 'non-typical'.

Answer 27

Freud has often been criticised for the lack of scientific rigour in his methods, and that because of their unconscious nature, many of the concepts he refers to in his account of gender development are untestable. For example, as castration anxiety is repressed, it is almost impossible to test whether boys experience this anxiety and that resolving the Oedipus complex leads to gender identity as a result of identification and internalisation. This is in contrast with other explanations of gender development that are based on objective, verifiable evidence derived from laboratory experiments, e.g. the biological approach.

Answer 28

Many commentators have criticised Freuds concept of the Oedipus complex and the use of the Little Hans case study particularly as support for the idea. As well as this, Freuds theory implies that sons of very punitive and harsh fathers should go on to develop a more robust sense of gender identity than other boys because higher levels of anxiety should produce stronger identification with the aggressor. However, this is not supported by evidence and in fact the reverse would seem to be true: that boys with more liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculine identity (Blackmore and Hill, 2008).

Answer 29

When someone is praised or encouraged for their behaviour which makes it more likely to be repeated in the future. In terms of gender, children are more likely to be praised and encouraged (directly reinforced) for gender-appropriate behaviour.

Answer 30

SLT acknowledges the role that social context plays in development and suggests that gender is learned from observing others who model and reinforce gender role behaviours and then imitating. This includes significant others that the child comes into contact with (parents, peers, teachers etc.) as well as the wider influence of culture and the media. At birth, girls and boys are psychologically the same. Gender differences are learned through the differences in the ways boys and girls are treated. Therefore, it draws attention to the role of nurture in shaping gender development.

Answer 31

When people are praised or encouraged for certain behaviours in preference to others, making that behaviour more likely to be repeated in the future. In terms of gender, boys may be reinforced for being active, assertive and engaging in rough and tumble play, whilst girls may be reinforced for being passive, gentle and staying close to their parent.

Answer 32

Smith and Lloyd (1978) studied 4-6-month-old babies who (irrespective of actual sex) were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half the time in girls’ clothes. They were observed interacting with adults when dressed in each type of clothes.

Answer 33

Critics have argued that social learning theory does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age. There are some age limitations, for example motor reproduction as a mediational process suggests that children may struggle to perform behaviours if they are not physically or intellectually capable. However, the general implication is that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age, I.e from birth onwards. This may not be the case, however. Dubin (1992) suggests that, although the child may take note of the behaviour of same-sex role models at an early age, selection and imitation of gender-role behaviour does not come until later. This is consistent with Kohlberg's theory that children do not become active in their gender development until they reach gender constancy.

Answer 34

We have seen how in the case of David Reimer, it was not possible to raise a biological male as female and override chromosomal influence. Modern researchers are more likely to accept the biosocial theory of gender: that there are innate biological differences between boys and girls that are reinforced through social interaction and cultural expectations.

Answer 35

A set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for another. Social learning theorists see gender-role behaviour as largely determined by the environment and socialisation.

Answer 36

Children observe many examples of gender behaviour in the media and learn gender-role behaviour via social learning theory processes. They identify with the same-sex role models. These role models could be sports stars, actors, musicians, book characters etc. They are more likely to imitate role models who are attractive, similar to them (same sex) or higher status as their behaviour is more likely to be reinforced. These role models model (often stereotypical) gender-role behaviour such as a boy seeing a professional footballer score a goal in the world cup. If the boys sees the footballer receive the golden boot for his play, vicarious reinforcement occurs and so the boy is more likely to imitate (model) the gender-role behaviour of playing football. Seeing others succeed raises the child’s beliefs in their own capabilities of carrying out such behaviours in the future (self-efficacy) and so makes imitation more likely. Therefore, children gradually learn gender roles (gender-role behaviour) from the media.

Answer 37

Furnham and Faragher (2000) conducted a study of TV adverts. They found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts, whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic setting. McGhee and Freuh (1980) conducted a longitudinal study over 15 months and found that children aged 6-12 who watched more than 25 hours a week of TV held more sex-stereotype perceptions than those who watched 10 hours or less. This was especially true for male stereotypes. Bussey and Bandura (1999) Men are seen as independent, ambitious 'advice givers' whereas women as seen as dependent, unambitious and advice seekers.

Answer 38

* The Arapesh were gentle and responsive similar to western femininity. * The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile similar to western masculinity * The Tchambuli women were dominant, and organised village life. The men were passive and considered to be decorative. This suggests that gender roles may be culturally determined and learned through socialisation processes.

Answer 39

● There are many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles. For example, Munroe and Munroe (1975) found that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines with males typically the ‘breadwinners’ and females often the ‘nurturers.’ ● Buss (1995) found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents. In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner.

Answer 40

Although it is generally concluded that the media has a considerable influence on the formation and maintenance of children’s gender-role stereotypes, it is difficult to establish cause and effect within these studies. It may be that the media output reflects prevailing social norms about males and females instead. Alternatively, the media may cause such norms by depicting men and women in particular ways. The vast majority of children are exposed to the media on a regular basis and therefore control groups of children who are beyond the media’s influence are not available for comparison. Such a comparison would make the direction of the media’s influence easier to establish.

Answer 41

The media is a means of changing gender-role stereotypes by presenting men or women in unusual roles (counter-stereotyping). For example, the Disney film ‘Brave’ challenged the traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. Pingree (1978) found that gender stereotyping was reduced when children were shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. However, caution should be exercised as pre-adolescent boys’ stereotypes were found to become stronger following exposure to the non-traditional models. Such a 'backlash' may be explained by the boy's desire to maintain a view that ran counter to the adult view. We cannot be sure whether internal validity can be met.

Answer 42

Mead’s research has been criticised for not separating her own opinions from her description of Samoan life (observer bias) and for making sweeping generalisations based on a relatively short period of study. Additionally, the indigenous people may have told her what she wanted to hear, with participants reporting that they had created a false picture of their behaviour. Freeman (1983) conducted a follow-up study of the Samoan people decades after Meads original and argued that meads findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of the participants. However, Freeman has been challenged for supporting his own theoretical viewpoint. This suggests that Mead’s results may not be internally valid and so from the results it is difficult to strongly support the influence of culture on gender roles.

Topic 9 - Gender Flashcards

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