Unit 1: Flashcards
1
Q
The Question of Differentiation
A
Since every cell in the body contains relatively the same genes, how can so many different cell types be generated
2
Q
The Question of Morphogenesis
A
How can the cells in our body arise to functional structures?
3
Q
Pattern Formation
A
Spatial organization of cells
4
Q
Microsurgery
A
Putting cells in new situations, or even transplanting pieces of one cell to itself or others.
5
Q
The Organizer
A
Spemann/Mangold
6
Q
Which piece of the blastopore induces formation?
A
The Dorsal lip
7
Q
Vogt
A
Created the concept of fate mapping
8
Q
Germ layers (3)
A
Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm
9
Q
Gametes
A
Sperm and egg
10
Q
Blastomeres
A
small cells that make up a blastula
11
Q
Gastrulation
A
When the blastula undergoes rapid cell rearrangement, formation of the three germ layers
12
Q
Germ cells
A
cells set aside for reproductive information
13
Q
Somatic cells
A
Non-germ cells
14
Q
Life cycles are usually controlled by:
A
Environmental factors, such as seasons [temp]
15
Q
Blastocoel
A
Fluid filled space in the animal hemisphere of the blastula to allow for extensive cell movement during gastrulation
16
Q
Blastopore
A
Dimple on the embryo surface which marks the dorsal side. Cells entering will become the mesoderm
17
Q
Notochord
A
rod of mesodermal cells most dorsal position to become nervous system
18
Q
Neurula
A
Embryonic stage where notochord has formed
19
Q
Somites
A
precursors to back muscles,spine, and dermis
20
Q
Comparative Embryology
A
How anatomy changes during development of different organisms
21
Q
Evolutionary Embryology
A
How changes in development cause evolutionary change, and how ancestry affects the current organism
22
Q
Teratology
A
Study of birth defects
23
Q
Oviparity
A
birth from egg [amphibian]
24
Q
Viviparity
A
live birth[mammal]
25
Ovoviviparity
birth from inside an egg[chick]
26
Ectoderm [2 tissues]
Skin, and brain/nervous system
27
Endoderm[2 tissues]
Digestive tract, and organs coating
28
Mesoderm[7 tissues]
Blood,heart,kidney,gonads,bones,muscles,connective tissues
29
Describe the Organizer experiment
One dorsal blastopore was transplanted to a new embryo which then contained two dorsal blastopore. Both areas started developing gastrulation and neurulas, notochords, and neural tubes, and eventually two organisms attached together.
30
Induction: Definition
The process by which one cell or tissue induces a specific reproducible differentiation in another tissue or cell.
31
Describe "Sufficiency" and how it does not have to be necessary.
Sufficiency means that an added element is enough to create the entire change, however, the element itself is not necessary to finish that change. The change could occur naturally without the added element. Example: Bill Gates vs. the Lottery. In order to be rich, you do not have to be Bill Gates, but being him would be sufficient.
32
Describe how "sufficiency" relates to functional redundancy. What does this mean for a cell?
Having components that are sufficient, but not necessary for a process allows for completion even when an element may fail, another is sufficient.
33
Describe "Necessity" and how it does not necessarily mean the element is sufficient.
An element may be needed to complete a task, but it doesn't mean that the element alone can complete the task. For example: Air and water. Air is necessary for survival, but air alone can also not guarantee survival. Water is also needed.
34
Does the Organizer experiment show that cells are Sufficient, or Necessary?
Sufficient. The cells alone put in a different situation created the same result without help.
35
Specification: Definition
The extent to which a cell is predestined to become a specific type for differentiation, or not.
36
Autonomous Specification
A cell is predestined a long time ago, and has reproducible divisions. Associated with localized determinants
37
Autonomous Differentiation Example
Poking off specific cells in Ascidians created mollusks of that cell type
38
Conditional Specification
Late decisions, variable divisions, regulative development, interactions with neighboring cells determine differentiation
39
The Organizer: Autonomous or Conditional Specification
Autonomous, because removed from a place, and still did the same thing.
40
Genomic Equivalence: Definition
Each somatic cell has the same chromosomes
41
Differential Gene Expression
Each cell has the capability to express the entire genome, but only a few are actually expressed.
42
Places of gene regulation
Nuclear RNA, messenger RNA, protein translation, choice of functional proteins within cell
43
Histone Methylation
Addition of negative charge to histones causes unraveling of DNA and allowing transcription
44
DNA Methylation
Stops transcription factors from binding
45
Chromosome puffs
in drosophila, all cells contained the same chromosomes, but only the puffed region [different in each cell] was being transcribed
46
Dolly the Sheep
Oocytes were denucleated, and nucleus of other sheep added. Implantation into surrogate mother, and successful birth
47
Histones
DNA wrapped stones within the chromosome chromatin complex
48
Describe the process of nuclear transfer
An egg's nucleus can be removed, and a different nucleus inserted into the egg with different DNA.
49
As the age of the nucleus increases, successful development ...
decreases
50
Why is Cloning so Rarely Successful?
LOS, Placental Defects,histones, epigenetic
51
Therapeutic Cloning
Using cells to create stem cells to differentiate
52
Reproductive Cloning
Cloning for human creation.
53
Chimeric Mixture
Splitting an embryo at its 8 cell stage or earlier and using multiple genomes
54
Totipotency
When a cell can differentiate into any other cell type
55
Pluripotency
When a cell can differentiate into almost any other cell type
56
Stem cells are harvested from the ___ stage of the embryo
Blastocyst
57
When can stem cells not from a fetus be found?
Bone marrow, and the umbilical cord
58
What is compaction, and why is it an important embryo stage?
Compaction is when the 8 cell embryo compacts together. After this, it is not possible for the cells to have totipotency.
59
Watershed: Implantation Pro
Many embryos fail to implant. Since several will never become born, the embryo at this stage cannot be considered a human.
60
Watershed: Implantation Con
Under the right conditions, any embryo COULD implant, therefore the embryo at this stage is a human. Also, ex utero development is becoming increasingly possible.
61
Watershed: Twinning Pro
A blastula can split and become twins later. This split is the start of human individuation, not beforehand, therefore the human blastula is not an individualized human.
62
Watershed: Twinning Con I
The process of twinning is not that there was once nothing, then suddenly two. There was ONE and now TWO, therefore, there was a complete individuated life in the blastula.
63
Watershed: Twinning Con II
Cnidarians form asexual polyps on themselves. Was the initial cnidarian not a cnidarian?
64
Watershed: Neurulation Pro
The defining element of the human species is our advanced nervous system. Therefore the embryo is not a human until the neural system begins to form.
65
Watershed: Neurulation Con
Under the right conditions, embryos WILL form the CNS. "human with potential" vs. "potential human"
66
Functionalist View
The functions of something define what it is.
67
Anti functionalist View
If you are only a human based on what you can function doing, then how do we consider those who are impaired, or infants, or the elderly?
68
Development is Continuous
The embryo will not articulate itself into any other species. Therefore it is a human. The human blastula is just what we all looked like at that stage of development.
69
Ontology
finding the essence of what something is
70
Ethics
What is the nature of good, and what is our responsibility towards it?
71
Deontological
Duty based, if the embryo is my neighbor, I have certain responsibilities toward it no matter how inherently useful it is
72
Consequentialist View:
maximize the good for all, even if a few must suffer
73
Intuitionism
Feels like
74
Commodification
Making something, such as the human life, into a commodity
75
Does ontology and ethics always overlap?
No, an example, is abortion. if you think that the fetus is a human life, however, the right of the woman supersedes the life of the unborn child.
76
Pragmatic Compromise
When the ethical obligations change due to extenuating circumstances, examples include ice babies. [ frozen embryos ]
77
How did Induced Pluripotency first come about?
Yamanaka factors [retroviral transfection] to create Pluripotency
78
Teratoma
Ovarian tumors that spontaneously differentiate cells within them , example hair.
79
How to test the abilities of a iPS
Place in Tetraploid cell that has not inner mass cells. If the embryo succeeds, then the iPS cells were indeed pluripotent.
80
Transdifferentiation
Direct reprogramming of cells instead of going through a pluripotent stem cell step
81
cDNA
complimentary DNA
82
How to find and mark specific parts of DNA
We can uses sequences complimentary to the ones we want as probes with dioxigenin as a place for something to bind to
83
How to find and mark specific proteins
Use a primary and secondary antibody
84
Indirect Immunostaining
Synthesize a piece of DNA with a GFP part on it that creates a fluorescent tail to the protein.
