Unit 1: Biochemistry Flashcards
1
Q
What are Hydrocarbons? Are they polar or nonpolar?
A
- Long chains of hydrogens and carbons
- nonpolar
2
Q
What are Isomers?
A
Compounds with the same number of atoms and same element but a different structure
3
Q
What are Structural Isomers?
A
A compound with the same molecular formula but a different molecular structure
(Know what it looks like, I don’t have premium to add pictures)
4
Q
What are Cis-Tran Isomers?
A
Cis Isomers are when the functional groups are on the same side of a carbon chain. Tran Isomers are when the functional groups are on the opposite sides of the carbon chain
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5
Q
What are the 4 types of macromolecules?
A
Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins
6
Q
What are Enantiomers?
A
2 molecules that are the mirror opposite of each other
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7
Q
What is dehydration synthesis?
A
Dehydration synthesis is when a bond is created between 2 molecules from the creation of water. The hydrogen atom of one molecule and the hydroxide molecule of another detach themselves from the 2 molecules are bond together to create water. The 2 molecules now have an empty bond which they use to bond themselves to each other
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8
Q
What is Hydrolysis?
A
When a bond is broken between 2 molecules from the addition of water. A water molecule breaks into a hydrogen atom and a hydroxide molecule that breaks apart the 2 molecules and they both bond themselves to one of the molecules.
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9
Q
What are Carbohydrates made of?
A
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
10
Q
Carbohydrate’s function
A
- Main source of energy
- Structural support in plant and animal cells
11
Q
Monomers and Polymer of Carbohydrates
A
Monosaccharides and polysaccharides
12
Q
What unique thing do carbohydrates do in an aqueous solution?
A
Form rings
13
Q
What are Glycosidic Linkage?
A
A covalent bond between 2 monosaccharides via dehydration synthesis
14
Q
What is Starch? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, where is it, what type of glucose)
A
- carbohydrate, polysaccharide
- energy storage for plants
- can be hydrolyzed to form glucose
- in the plastids of plants
- ά-Glucose molecule
15
Q
What is Cellulose? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, what type of glucose)
A
- Carbohydrate, polysaccharide
- plants
- makes up a plant’s cell walls
- β-Glucose molecule
16
Q
What is Glycogen? (Macromolecule, plant or animal, function, where is it, what type of glucose)
A
- carbohydrate, polysaccharide
- animal energy storage
- can be hydrolyzed to form glucose
- within liver and muscle cells
- ά-Glucose molecule
17
Q
What are Lipids composed of?
A
Mostly Carbons and Hydrogens
18
Q
Lipid Function
A
- Stores energy
- cell membranes
- waterproof covering
19
Q
Lipid Monomers
A
Fatty acids and glycerol
20
Q
Why aren’t Lipids considered polymers?
A
Polymers are supposed to go on indefinitely from any side, while glycerol can only bond up to 3 fatty acids
21
Q
Are Lipids Hydrophobic or Hydrophilic? Nonpolar or Polar?
A
Hydrophobic, Nonpolar
22
Q
What are Saturated Lipids?
A
- all single carbon bonds
- max number of hydrogens bonded (therefore “saturated”)
- solid at room temp
(Know what it looks like, I don’t have premium to add pictures)
23
Q
What are Unsaturated Lipids? Polyunsaturated?
A
- at least 1 double bond
- liquid at room temp
- Polyunsaturated have more than 1 double bond
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24
Q
Important features of a Phospholipid?
A
- have polar(head) and nonpolar(tail) regions
- have hydrophilic(head) and hydrophobic(tails) region
- make up cell membrane
25
What are Steroids?
Lipids that have 4 fused rings attached to a carbon skeleton
(Know what it looks like, I don't have premium to add pictures)
26
What are Nucleic Acids composed of?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphate, nitrogen
27
What are the monomers and polymers of Nucleic Acids?
Nucleotides, DNA or RNA
28
What are the 3 parts of Nucleotides?
5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen base
29
Function of Nucleic Acids
Store and transmit genetic information
30
What are the Nucleotides of DNA and RNA?
Cytosine, Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Uracil
31
What are Proteins composed of?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
32
What are the monomers and polymers of Protein?
Amino acids, polypeptides
33
What is the function of Protein
- control reaction rates and cell processes
- some form bones/muscles
- transport substances
- hormones
34
What type of bonds for amino acids form?
Peptide bonds
35
What are the 4 levels of organization for Proteins?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary
36
What are Primary Structures?
Specific amino acid sequence
37
What are Secondary Structures?
Can be an alpha helix shape or beta pleated sheet depending on the location of the hydrogen bonding on the peptide backbone
38
What is the Tertiary Structure?
- 3-D shape the protein assumes as a result from various bonding between the R-groups
39
What is the Quaternary Structure?
A clustering of multiple peptide chains that can be Fibrous or Globular
40
What is Denaturation?
Not ideal environmental conditions causes bonds to break, therefore changing the shape of the protein and affects the ability to function properly
41
What are the Elements Essential for Life?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
42
What are Trace Elements
An element required in minute amounts
43
Covalent Bonding
Atoms sharing valence electrons
44
What is Electronegativity?
Tendency of an atom/group to attract electrons towards itself
45
What is a Polar Covalent bond? What is a Nonpolar Covalent bond?
Polar: unequal distribution of charge
Non-polar: equal distribution of charge
(Know what it looks like, I don't have premium to add pictures)
46
What are Ionic Bonds?
Bond between oppositely charge ions, electrons are transferred, these bonds easily disassociate in water
47
What are hydrogen bonds?
A weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom/compound. Considered weak because there are specific biological processes that break them
48
What are important factors about Water?
- Polar Molecule
- held together by hydrogen bonds
49
What is Cohesion?
Same molecules are attracted to each other due to Hydrogen bonding. Also results in high surface tension due to powerful bonds between the molecules
50
What is Adhesion?
Clinging of one substance to another due to Hydrogen bonding
51
What are properties of Water that are due to Hydrogen bonding?
High-Surface Tension, High Specific Heat, High Heat of Vaporization, Solid form of water (ice) is less dense than the liquid form
52
What is High Specific Heat? What is High Heat of Vaporization?
High Specific Heat means it takes a lot of energy to increase and decreases the temperature of a substance. High Heat of Vaporization means that the substance requires a lot of heat to convert 1g liquid water to gas
53
Why does water become less dense as it freezes?
The water molecules take on a crystalline formation as it freezes which makes the molecules further apart than its liquid form. Important for marine life because it allows life to continue on below the surface
54
What is an aqueous solution?
Solution where water is a the solvent
55
What is Molarity?
Number of Moles of solute per liter of solution
56
What is the pH of Acids, What does it change about a solution?
- pH is 1-6
- Increases Hydrogen in the solution
57
What is the pH of Bases? What does it change about a solution?
- pH is 8-13
- Increases Hydroxide in a solution
58
What is Activation Energy?
Initial input of energy required to break down large molecules
59
What are Catalysts?
An enzyme that reduces the amount of energy required to start a reaction
60
What are important factors about enzymes? (Use, macromolecule)
-Increases rate of reaction
-reduces activation energy
-required for most biological reactions
-proteins
61
What is a Substrate
Reactant that binds to an enzyme
62
What is a Product
End result of a reaction
63
What is an active site
Enzyme's catalytic site
64
What is Induced Fit?
The substrate binding causes enzyme to change shape leading to a tighter fit
65
What are 2 actions that enzymes do to lower activation energy and speed up a reaction?
Synthesis and Digestion
- active sites puts substrates in correct position
- active sites binds substrate and puts stress on bonds that must be broken, which makes it easier to separate molecules
66
What are the 7 factors that affect enzyme function?
Enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature, pH, Salinity, Activators, and Inhibitors
67
What happens when the enzyme concentration is increased?
It increases the rate of reaction because there are more enzymes to bind with substrates. It slows down because there aren't enough substrates for the enzymes to bind to after a certain point.
68
What happens when the substrate concentration in increased?
It increases rate of reaction because there are more substrates for the enzyme to bind to, it decreases the competition to bind. It slows down after a certain point because all enzymes will have their active sites engaged. The maximum rate of reaction will be reached
69
What is Optimum Temperature?
Greatest number of molecular collisions
70
What are Activators?
Compounds that aid enzymes
71
What is Salinity?
Salt Concentration
72
What are Cofactors?
Non-protein, small inorganic compounds and ions. Are bound within the molecule
73
What are Coenzymes?
Non-protein, organic molecules that bind near active site
74
What are Inhibitors?
Molecules that reduce enzyme activity
75
What are the 4 types of Inhibitors
Competitive, noncompetitive, irreversible, and feedback
76
What is Competitive Inhibition
Inhibitor and substrate compete for the active site
77
What is Non Competitive Inhibition?
Inhibitor binds to site other than the active site which causes a conformational change in the enzymes active site which makes it no longer functional. Called the allosteric inhibitor and the allosteric site
78
What is cooperativity?
The substrate enhances the enzymes activity by causing a positive conformational change
79
What is feedback inhibition?
When the enzyme is inhibited by the end product of the reaction pathway. Usually acts like an allosteric inhibitor
80
What is Cytology?
Study of cell structure
81
What is a protist?
Unicellular eukaryotes
82
What are 5 features that prokaryotes and eukaryotes share?
Plasma membrane. Cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes, cytoplasm
83
What are 2 factors that effect cell size?
Surface area - volume ratio
metabolic requirements
84
How does surface area to volume ratio effect cell size?
- smaller cells are more efficient compared to bigger cells b/c materials can cross through quicker and there is a higher surface area to volume ratio, meaning the cell can take in more nutrients to sustain a smaller amount
85
How does metabolic requirements effect cell size?
The cell has to be a certain size to fit all the components needed for it to function
86
What are the 2 cellular components involved in the genetic control of the cell?
Nucleus, houses the cell's DNA
Ribosome, uses information from the DNA to synthesize proteins
87
What 3 organelles can gene information be found in?
DNA, mitochondria, chloroplasts
88
What is the function of mRNA?
It is synthesized in the nucleus and carries information out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm. It reaches the ribosomes and the ribosomes translate the information into a specific protein
89
What is the function difference between bound and free ribosomes?
Free Ribosomes: produces proteins that function primarily within the cytosol
Bound Ribosomes: produces proteins made for insertion into the membrane
90
What organelles does the Endomembrane system include?
Nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles
91
How does the Smooth ER detoxify substances?
Adds hydroxyl groups to the toxic substances to make them water-soluble and able to e flushed from the body
92
What are the Cis and Trans faces of the Golgi Appartus?
Cis Face: vesicles add materials to this part of the Golgi
Trans Face: vesicles pinch off from the trans face
93
What are the 3 main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton?
Microtubules, intermediate filaments, micro filaments
94
What are the 2 organelles require to work together to aid cell motility?
Cytoskeleton and motor proteins
95
What is an amphipathic molecule?
Contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
96
Psychoactive drugs
Chemical substance that alters the brain, causes changes in perception and mood
97
Substance use disorder
Characterized by continued substance use despite significant life disruption
98
What are 4 parts of a substance use disorder?
Diminished control, diminished social functioning, hazardous use, and drug action
99
What are the 2 factors that contribute to the effect of a drug?
Biological effects and the users expectation
100
What are the 3 major categories of psychoactive drugs?
Depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens
101
What do psychoactive drugs do to neurotransmitters and receptors? (3)
Stimulates or inhibits the receptors
mimics neurotransmitters
102
Depressant function
calms neural activity and slows body function
103
How does alcohol act as a disinhibitor?
Alcohol slows brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions
104
What are the 3 effects of alcohol consumption?
Slows sympathetic nervous system activity
disrupts memory formation
reduced self-awareness
105
What are barbiturates?
Drugs that depress the central nervous system activity, reduces anxiety but impairs memory and judgment, tranquilizers
106
What are opiods?
Depress neural activity, temporarily lessens pain and anxiety
107
What happens when the brain is repeatedly exposed to synthetic opioids?
The brain will stop producing natural endorphins, causing a dependence on these artificial opioids
108
What are stimulants?
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
109
What are some uses for stimulants?
Feeling alert, losing weight, boosting mood, athletic performance, or academic performance
110
What occurs when someone takes a hit of nicotine?
The central nervous system releases a flood of neurotransmitters. The epinephrine and norepinephrine will diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency. Dopamine and opioids will calm anxiety
111
How does cocaine effect the body?
It produces a rush of euphoria from the rush of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, which results in a major depression and crash once the drug wears off. The drug binds to the sites that reabsorb the neurotransmitters, resulting in these neurotransmitters staying long afterwards
112
What is the effect of amphetamines?
They stimulate neural activity, energy and mood rises
113
What are mathamphetamines?
they trigger the release of dopamine which stimulates braincells that enhance energy and mood, but results in a crash afterwards. Over time, it reduces the baseline dopamine levels, resulting in a depressed mood
114
What is ecstasy?
A stimulant and a mild hallucinogen, it triggers dopamine release and released stored serotonin and blocks reuptake.
115
116
What are the harms of ecstacy?
Dehydrating effect that can lead to overheating, increased blood pressure and death. Can damage the serotonin-producing neurons. Suppresses the immune system, impairs memory, slows thought, and disrupts sleep
117
What are hallucinogens?
Distorts perception and evoke sensory images
118
What are the effects of THC?
Hallucinations, delusions, anxiety
amplifies sensitivity
also relaxes, disinhibits, and brings on a high
impairs motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time
119
What are the 5 stimulants?
Caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamines, ecstasy, nicotine
120
What are the 2 depressants?
Alcohol, heroin
121
What are the 3 hallucinogens?
Ecstasy, LSD, Marijuana
122
What is phrenology? Is it trustworthy?
Study of the bumps on the skull and the possible mental abilities and traits, debunked
123
What is localization of function?
The idea that various brain regions have particular functions
124
What systems need to be studied to understand behavior?
Biological, psychological, and social cultural
125
What is the biopsychosocial approach? What are the 3 levels of analysis?
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social cultural levels of analysis
126
What is neuroplasticity?
The brain's ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
127
What is lesion?
Tissue destruction
128
How do scientists lesion?
they lesion tiny clusters of normal or defective brain cells to observe their effect on brain function
129
What are the 3 main divisions of vertebrate brains?
Hindbrain, midbrain, and the forebrain
130
What does the hindbrain do?
Contains brainstem strucutres that direct essential survival functions
131
What does the midbrain do?
Connects the hindbrain and the forebrain, controls movement and transmit information that enables seeing and hearing
132
What does the forebrain do?
Manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor movement
133
Organism's brain parts evolve to best suit their environment, True or False?
true
134
What is the brainstem responsible for?
Automatic survival functions
135
What does the medulla do?
Hindbrain, controls heartbeat and breathing
136
Pon's function
Coordinate movements and control sleep
137
What is the brain's contralateral hemisphere organization?
The sides of the brain controls the opposite sides of the body.
138
Thalamus Function
The forebrain's sensory control center, directs messages tot he sensory reciving areas in the cortex and trasmit replies to the cerebellum and medulla
139
What is the reticular formation?
Nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus, filters information and controls arousal
140
Cerebellum function
Processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, enables nonverbal learning and memory
141
What would occur if the cerebellum was injured?
Difficulty walking and balancing
142
Limbic system function?
Located mostly in the forebrain, associated with emotions and drives
143
What are the parts of the brain associated with the limbic system (5)
Hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary glands, amygdala, hypothalamus
144
What is the amygdala?
Enables aggression and fear
145
What is the hypothalamus?
Directs maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system and is linked to emotion and reward
146
What is the hippocampus?
processes conscious, explicit memories
147
What happens when the hippocampus is injured?
The ability for form new memories of facts or events are lost
148
What is the cerebrum?
The 2 cerebral hemispheres that enables our perceiving thinking, and speaking
149
What is the cerebral cortex?
Thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells over the cerebrum
150
What is the cerebrum mostly filled with?
Axons connecting the cortex to other regions
151
What are the 4 lobes the hemisphere's cortex are divided into?
Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
152
Frontal lobe function
Enables linguistic processing, muscle movement, high order thinking, and executive function
153
Parietal lob function
Receives sensory input for touch and body posiition
154
Occipital lobe function
Areas that receive information from visual fields
155
Temporal lobe function
Auditory areas that receives information from the opposite ear, also enables language processing
156
What is the motor cortex?
Controls voluntary movement at the front lobes
157
How does body part sensitivity relate to brain size?
The bigger area in the brain, the greater sensitivity of that area
158
Somatosensory cortex function
Specializes in receiving information from the senses and from the movement of body parts
