Unit 2

Question 1

one-dimensional model of causality

Answer 1

• attributes causes of behavior to a single cause
• Is linear in approach (e.g., biological or social or
  psychological)

Question 2

multi-dimensional model of causality

Answer 2

• attributes causes of behavior to several causes
• Systemic, interdisciplinary

Question 3

multidimensional approach: Behavioural influence

Answer 3

Phobia as a conditioned response, generalizing to other situations

Question 4

multidimensional approach: biological influences

Answer 4

Overactive vasovagal reaction (vasovagal syncope)

Question 5

multidimensional approach: emotional influences

Answer 5

Behaviour, thoughts, and feelings influences biology

Question 6

multidimensional approach: social influences

Answer 6

• Influence behaviour and biology
• Support or rejection can contribute to psychopathology

Question 7

multidimensional approach: developmental influences

Answer 7

• Developmental critical/sensitive periods - more or less reactive to given situations

Question 8

gene-environment interactions

Answer 8

• Genes: unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring
• Behaviour, personality, intelligence, psychological disorders are polygenic (influenced
  by many genes)
• Environmental factors can also contribute to gene expression (epigenetics)
  About 50% of variability in personality, cognitive, and emotional traits attributed to
  genetic influence

Question 9

General Conclusions Re:
Gene Involvement in
Psychopathology

Answer 9

1. Genes are involved in the etiology of psychological
   disorders
2. Contributions of genes to psychological disorders
   come from many genes (polygenic), each having a
   small effect
3. Genetic contributions cannot be studied in the
   absence of interactions with the environment
   (epigenetics)

Question 10

gene and environment interaction

Answer 10

• Environment may occasionally turn on certain genes
• Could lead to changes in biochemical functioning in the brain
• Brain is plastic – subject to change in the environment
• Gene-environment interaction models relevant to psychopathology:
  1. Diathesis-Stress Model
  2. Reciprocal Gene-environment Mode

Question 11

diathesis-stress model

Answer 11

psychological disorders result from an interaction between inherent vulnerability and environmental stressors

Question 12

reciprocal gene-environment model

Answer 12

• Genes may increase the probability that an individual will experience a stressful life event
  -the Hypothesis that people with a genetic predisposition for a disorder may also have a genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors that promote the disorder

Question 13

types of gene-environment correlations: passive

Answer 13

individual has a certain gene, and grows up in an environment that is influenced
by that gene

Question 14

types od gene-environment correlations: evocative

Answer 14

Individual’s genetically influenced characteristics evoke responses from others in the environment

Question 15

types of gene-environment correlations: active

Answer 15

Individuals seek out or create environments that encourage their genetic predispositions

Question 16

epigenetics

Answer 16

• In a study with rodents that were cross-fostered
• Maternal behaviour impacted how young rats
  tolerated stress
• Calm and supportive behaviour by mothers could be
  passed down through generations
• Epigenetics: Environment can influence DNA by
  changing gene expression
• Can be passed down to future generations
  (intergenerational transmission

Question 17

hindbrain

Answer 17

coordinates functions that are fundamental to survival, including respiratory rhythm, motor activity, sleep, and wakefulness

Question 18

midbrain

Answer 18

involved in several functions, including motor control, particularly eye movements and processing of vision and hearing

Question 19

forebrain

Answer 19

important for the planning and execution of movements, sensory processing, regulating sleep wake states and behavioral responses to emotions such as stress and fear

Question 20

brain main structure

Answer 20

the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem. Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres. It performs higher functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions, learning, and fine control of movement

Question 21

peripheral nervous system

Answer 21

• the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord
  -The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for “fight or flight,” whereas the parasympathetic nervous system allows the body to “rest and digest.”

Question 22

neurotransmitters

Answer 22

Activate or inhibit impulse in the post-synaptic neuron
* Abnormal behaviour can result from;
1. Too much or too little neurotransmitters in the synapse
2. Too few or too many receptors on the dendrites
3. Excess or deficit in amount of transmitter-deactivating substance in the
synapse
4. Reuptake process can be too rapid or too slow
* TOO MUCH EXCITATION OR TOO MUCH INHIBITION → Abnormal
Behaviour

Question 23

central nervous system

Answer 23

-made up of the brain and spinal cord
-sending and receiving messages to various parts of the body

Question 24

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Answer 24

• Part of the endocrine system
• Hypothalamus → pituitary gland → adrenal
  gland → CORTISOL
• Cortisol
• Increases blood sugar, suppresses immune
  system, alters metabolism
• Contributes to “fight or flight”
• Implicated in psychological disorders

Question 25

neurotransmitters: agonists

Answer 25

increase the activity of a NT by mimicking effects

Question 26

neurotransmitters: antagonists

Answer 26

decrease or block of NT

Question 27

neurotransmitters: inverse agonists

Answer 27

produce opposite effect of the NT

Question 28

neurotransmittters: glutamate

Answer 28

* Excitatory effect * Fast acting -exhibitory

Question 29

neurotransmitters: GABA

Answer 29

* Inhibitory effect * Fast acting * Reduces anxiety * Benzodiazepines are a GABA agonist → calming effect -inhibitory

Question 30

neurotransmitters: serotonin (5HT)

Answer 30

* Monoamine category of NT * Regulates behaviour, mood, and thought processes * Low levels of 5HT * Less inhibition, instability, impulsivity * E.g., depression, aggression, suicidality, impulsive overeating, hypersexual behaviours * Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors directly affect 5HT * Used to treat anxiety, mood, eating disorders -regulates behaviour and mood

Question 31

neurotransmitters: norepinephrine

Answer 31

* Monoamine class of NTs * Part of the endocrine system * Stimulates alpha-adrenergic and beta-adrenergic receptors * Beta-blockers block beta-receptors, keeping blood pressure and heart rate down -increase blood pressure

Question 32

neurotransmitter: dopamine

Answer 32

* Monoamine class of NTs * Implicated in schizophrenia and disorders of addiction * DA activity associated with exploratory, outgoing, and pleasure- seeking behaviours -reward system (pleasure)

Question 33

psychosocial influences on brain structure and function

Answer 33

* Effects of treatment sometimes tells us about the cause * If OCD is caused by a faulty brain circuit

Question 34

placebo effect

Answer 34

* Placebo medications result in behavioural and emotional changes * Mechanism of action: hope, expectation of change * Only seem to work when patients think they are receiving a drug * Suggests psychological factors are another option for changing brain circuits

Question 35

psychosocial influences on brain structure and function: baxter

Answer 35

* Brain imaging before and after treatment with either medication or CBT * Found that the brain circuit had been changed by CBT * Other studies found evidence of changes in the brain following psychological treatment of PTSD, depression, phobias, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, schizophrenia

Question 36

psychosocial influences on the brain: kennedy

Answer 36

* Patients with major depressive episode treated with CBT and venlafaxine (antidepressant) * Showed similar brain changes as well as some complex differences: * CBT-treated: “Top Down”; changes in cortex affected emotional brain * Venlafaxine-treated: “Bottom-Up”; reaching higher areas of cortex last.

Question 37

psyhcosocial influence on the brain: insel

Answer 37

* Two groups of monkeys * Group 1: free access to toys and treats * Group 2: only had access when the first group did * All monkeys received a dose of GABA inverse agonist (increases anxiety) * Group 1: Responded with anger and aggression * Group 2: Responded with severe anxiety and panic CONCLUSION: Psychosocial factors INTERACT with NTs to impact functioning

Question 38

learned helpessness

Answer 38

* Martin Seligman * Animals receive a shock on their feet * Animals that can do something about it (e.g., escape, press a lever to avoid a shock) function well * Animals that can’t do anything about it become helpless – appear depressed * People react similarly -when human is faced with uncontrollable stress out of there ability to control they become helpless

Question 39

social learning

Answer 39

-Albert bandura * Organisms (individuals) can learn by observing what happens to someone else in a given situation (Modeling or observational learning) * Much of what we learn depends on interactions with other people around us (Social learning theory)

Question 40

prepared learning

Answer 40

* We learn to fear some objects much more easily than others * E.g., snakes and spiders vs. rocks and flowers * One trial learning * Attributed to evolution (survival of ancestors) * Perhaps people who avoided these objects survived in greater numbers and passed down their genes

Question 41

cognitive behavioural therapy

Answer 41

* Developed by Aaron T. Beck * Dealing with faulty attributions and attitudes associated with learned helplessness and depression * Short term therapy – usually 10-20 sessions * Techniques include: * Cognitive Restructuring * Exposure Therapy * Relaxation * Problem Solving

Question 42

emotions: mood and affect

Answer 42

* Subjective feelings * Action tendency – or strong motivation to act * Complex physiological or arousal response * Mood → More persistent period of affect or emotionality * Affect → momentary emotional tone that accompanies what we say or do

Question 43

components of emotion: behaviour, cognitive, physiology

Answer 43

emotion of behaviour: -basic pattern of emotional behaviour (freeze, escape, approach, attack) that differ in fundamental ways -emotional behaviour is a means of communication cognitive aspects of emotion: -appraisals, attributions, and other ways of processing the world around you that are fundamental to emotional experience physiology of emotion: -emotion is a brain function involving (generally) the more primitive brain areas -direct connection between these areas and the eyes may allow emotional processing to bypass the influences of higher cognitive processes

Question 44

emotions and psychopathology

Answer 44

* Dysregulated emotions contribute to almost all psychopathologies * Panic disorder → fear occurring at the wrong time * Bipolar disorder → Cycles of intense joy and happiness and sadness and depression * Depression → uncontrollable and pervasive sadness

Question 45

cultural social and interpersonal factors

Answer 45

* Gender roles * Dramatic gender differences in certain disorders * Insect phobias and mood disorders – likely to be women * Due to cultural expectations of men and women? * May respond differently to treatment * Women maintained gains following treatment for PTSD longer than men * May impact treatment seeking behaviours

Question 46

social effects on health and behaviour

Answer 46

* Higher quality social support and greater number of social relationships * Longer life * Protects against physical disorders such as high blood pressure, catching cold * Protect against depression * Perception of loneliness increases the likelihood of mortality and risk

Question 47

principle of equifinality

Answer 47

* There are various developmental pathways or factors that lead to the same outcome * No single, exclusive cause for a particular psychological disorder * Psychopathology typically results from complex interactions between genetic, biological, behavioural, cognitive, social, cultural, and developmental factors * What may trigger a disorder in one person, may not have the same effect on another -very important for developmental PSYC -there are many ways to achieve a goal