Flashcards in Unit 2 Deck (109):
1
A hypothesis is...
A prediction
2
Hypothesis that indicates a direction in results
Directional
3
Hypothesis that doesn’t indicate a direction in results
Non directional
4
Null hypothesis means ...
Prediction won’t happen - if so by chance
5
Operationalisation means
How you intend to measure the DV
6
An extraneous variable is...
Any variable except the IV that influences findings
7
Situational variable is ...
An extraneous variable that’s in the environment
Eg earthquake, hot sunny day
8
Participant variable is...
An extraneous variable caused by the participant
Eg: stress, being ill, tiredness
9
A confounding variable ....
Effects findings so much you’re no longer measuring what was intended
10
Covariables are ....
Associated variables - but doesn’t say how or why
11
Lab experiment is....
Takes place in a controlled environment
IV manipulated to see effect on DV
12
Field experiment is.....
Takes place in a more natural environment/real life setting
IV manipulated to see effect on DV
13
Natural experiment is ....
Takes place in a real life setting
IV left to naturally occur to see effect on DV
14
2 Benefits 2 drawbacks of lab experiments
+ high control + establish cause and effect
- artificial - demand characteristics
15
2 Benefits 2 drawbacks of field experiments
+ real life + ecologically valid
- limited variable control - difficult to replicate
16
2 Benefits 2 drawbacks of natural experiments
+ real life + ecologically valid
- not replicable - no control over variables
17
4 types of Naturalistic observation
Covert
Overt
Participant
Non participant
18
Covert observations...
Participants are unaware of the observation
19
Overt observations....
Participants know about the observation
20
1 benefit and 1 drawback of covert observation
+ validly
- unethical
21
1 benefit and 1 drawback of overt observation
+ ethical
- demand characteristics
22
1 benefit and 1 drawback of participant observation
+ practical
- may lack notes
23
1 benefit and 1 drawback of non participant observation
+ practical
- validity
24
Structured observations take place in...
Takes place in a lab
NOT an experiment!
25
1 benefit and 1 drawback of a structured observation
+ reliable
- poor validity
26
What is content analysis
A way of systematically describing written/spoken/visual communication
Provides quantitative data
27
3 benefits of content analysis
+ accounts for individual difference
+ establish behaviour causes
+ good to study emotion
28
3 drawbacks of content analysis
- not scientific
- can’t generalise
- lacks validity
29
Process of content analysis
1- draw up categories
2- tally, counting references to each category
30
3 types of interview
Structured
Unstructured
Semi structured
31
Types of question in a questionnaire
Open ended question
Closed questions
32
2 benefits to interviews
+ generalisable if sample is representative
+ easy to repeat
33
2 drawbacks to interviews
- objective
- unreliable answers
34
2 benefits to questionnaires
+ easy to gain large sample
+ easy to replicate
35
2 drawbacks to questionnaires
- unhonest response
- subjective
36
3 benefits to quantitative data
+ easy conclusions
+ scientific
+ superficial
37
2 drawbacks to quantitative data
- lacks validity
- narrow information
38
3 benefit is to qualitative data
+ meaningful and valid
+ ecological validity
+ can convert to quantitative
39
2 drawbacks to qualitative data
- hard to compare
- less scientific
40
Sampling frame where everyone has an equal chance
Random
41
Sampling frame where first available is taken
Opportunity
42
Sampling frame where every Nth person is chosen
Systematic
43
Sampling frame where population is categorised and chosen in same proportions
Stratified
44
Sampling frame where target no. of participants of different groups
Quota
45
Sampling frame where participants volunteer themselves
Volunteer
46
Sampling frame where participant offers up another participant
Snowballing
47
Types of snowball Sampling
Non discrimative exponential
Discriminate exponential
48
1 benefit 1 drawback of random sampling
+ unbiased
- issues in being representative
49
1 benefit 1 drawback of opportunity sampling
+ easy and quick
- not representative
50
1 benefit 1 drawback of systematic sampling
+ representative sample
- can be difficult
51
1 benefit 1 drawback of stratified sampling
+ very representative
- time consuming
52
1 benefit 1 drawback of quota sampling
+ focused research
- not always representative, can be bias
53
1 benefit 1 drawback of volunteer sampling
+ motivated people
- not representative
54
1 benefit 1 drawback of snowballing sampling
+ good for minorities
- little control
55
2 Observational sampling techniques
Time sampling
Situation/event sampling
56
4 types of experimental design
Independent measures
Repeated measures
Matched pairs
Counterbalanced design
57
Independent measures design involves....
Different participants from different groups
58
1 benefit 1 weakness of independent measures
+ no order effects
- participant variables
59
Repeated measures involves....
Participants doing both sets of conditions
60
1 benefit 1 weakness of repeated measures
+ no individual differences
- no order effect. - demand characteristics
61
Matched pairs involves.....
Match participants into both groups via characteristics and treat as independent measures
62
1 benefit 1 weakness of matched pairs
+ no order effect
- participant variables
63
4 levels of measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
64
Nominal data has...
Exclusive categories with no relative rank
65
Ordinal data has....
Ranked exclusive categories where attributes are ordered via rank
66
Interval data has.....
Continuous scale - no absolute 0
67
Ratio data has....
Continuous scale that has an absolute 0
68
Internal Reliability can be measured by...
Split half method
69
External reliability can be measured using....
Test rated method
Inter-rather reliability
70
2 issues within validity
Demand characteristics
Researcher bias
71
How to solve validity issues
Single blind design
Double blind design
Experimental realism
72
2 benefits of case studies
Valid and rich data
Ecologically valid
73
2 drawbacks of case studies
Low generalisability
Not replicable
74
2 types of research methods
Longitudinal
Cross sectional
75
2 benefits 2 weakness of longitudinal research methods
+ no participant variables
+ easy comparisons
- hard to keep participants
- issues with generalisability
76
2 benefits 2 weaknesses of cross sectional research
+ cheaper
+ easier to get funding
- cannot compare
- participant variables
77
3 types of brain scans
CAT scan (computed axial tomography)
MRI scan (magnetic resonance imaging)
PET scan (positron emission tomography)
78
2 benefits of a CAT scan
+ useful for abnormal structures
+ provides higher quality pictures
79
2 weaknesses of CAT scans
- more radiation than X-rays
- only structural info
80
2 benefits of an MR scan
+ more detailed soft tissue than CAT
+ no radiation
81
2 weaknesses of MRI scans
- can take a long time
- can be comfortable
82
2 benefits of PET scans
+ real chemical info
+ show brain activity
83
2 weaknesses of PET scan
- extremely costly
- less precise than MRI
84
CAT scans are....
Series of X-rays, combined too form 2D/3D pictures
85
MRI scans involve..
Magnetic field causes atoms in brain to change their alignment when the magnes on, they emit radio signals when off
86
PET scans involve....
Administering a radioactive tracer (glucose), radiation detectors can see areas & build picture of activity
87
Ethical issues that need to be considered are....
Confidentiality
Deception
Risk of harm
Risk of values
Informed consent
Debriefing
88
A peer review is ....
An assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the same field
89
1 benefit and 2 weaknesses of a peer review
+ improved validity
- hard to find an expert
- publication bias
90
What was the aims of milligrams obedience study?
Look at levels of obedience when told by an authourative figure
91
Methodology of milgrams study
Lab experiment
40males 20-50 years
‘Study of memory’
took place at Yale uni
92
Procedures of milgrams study
1. Draw slips to identify learner (confederate) and teacher — this is rigged!!!
2. L strapped to chair, T taken to adjacent room
3. T reads series of word pairs, L asked to learnt them
4. T gives the word with 4 others, L asked to identify what word is the pair
5. L answers via switches
6. If correct, T move on, if wrong gives shock
7. Subsequent wrong answers, shock increases
8. If t wanted to stop, prods/ encouragement were given
93
Results of milgrams study
100% obeyed up to 300V
65% gave the full 450V
94
Conclusions of milgrams study
Social setting is a powerful behaviour determinant
Socialised to recognise authority and obey it
95
Strengths of milgrams study
G
R- lab experience the, standardised, consistent results
A- relates to blind obedience in holocaust
V- high experimental validity
E- all debriefed, all examined by physistians
96
Weaknesses of milgrams study
G- 40 males, androcentric, ethnocentric
R
A
V- low ecological validity, low population validity
E- inadequate protection, no informed consent, filmed on hidden camera, right to withdraw prevented
97
Aim of kohlbergs moral philosopher study
Develop on ideas of Piaget on moral development
98
Methodology of kohlbergs study
72 Chicago boys 10-16yrs
58 followed for 20 years
Cross sectional study
Repeated measures
99
Procedure of kohlbergs study
1. 2 hour interview based on 10 dilemmas eg. Hienz dilemma
2. Asked questions on thee dilemmas eg ‘should he have stolen?’ ‘Would it change if...?’
3. Looked at reasons for their decision not if they were morally right or wrong
100
Findings of kohlbergs study
- reasons changed as participants got older
- 3 distinct levels, 2 sub levels in each (preconventional, conventional, postconventional)
- no everyone achieves them all
101
What are the 3 levels of development according to kohlbergs?
Preconventional (3-7yrs)
Conventional (8-13 yrs)
Postconventional (adulthood)
102
Strengths of kohlbergs study
G-
R- standardised scenarios, supporting research
A- helped parenting techniques
V
E- briefed and debriefed, content, right to withdraw
103
Weaknesses of Kohlbergs study
G- all male fom Chicago, androcentric and ethnocentric
R- cross sectional, thus different upbringings = extraneous variable
A
V- artificial, lacks ecological validity, sample bias lacks population validity
E- one distress caused by dilemmas
104
What was the aim of personal investigation 1 on perception
To see if context influences perception of an ambiguous stimulus
105
What inferential stat test was used in PI1 and why?
Chi squared
Study had nominal data, independent measures, tested association
106
1 Reliability issue with PI1 and how to solve it
- noise caused poor concentration - complete in a quiet area
107
2 validity issues in PI1
1. Artificial, low ecological validity — do similar tests regularly
2. Unrepresentative (opp sample) — use a systematic sample technique
108
What inferential stat was used in PI and why?
Spearmans rho
See strength of correlation, unrelated covariable s, ordinal/interval data
109