Unit 2 - The natural environment Flashcards

Question

Factors that increase risk and vulnerability

Answer 1

- Urbanization - densely populated areas with less robust buildings increases vulnerability - Economic development - LEDCs have poorer infrastructure, planning, preparation, healthcare, systems and emergency responses

Answer 2

Direct result of earthquakes or eruption

Answer 3

As a result of primary effects

Answer 4

- Deaths and injuries - Crop damage - Roads and infrastructure damage

Answer 5

- Spread of disease - Homelessness - Shortage of resources - Loss of jobs and businesses - Transport difficulties - Tsunamis - Mudflow - Fires

Answer 6

- Deaths and injuries - Road and infrastructure damage

Answer 7

- Spread of disease - Homelessness - Shortage of resources - Loss of jobs and businesses - Tsunami - Landslides - Fires

Answer 8

- Pyroclastic flow - Lava flow - Tephra - Volcanic bombs - Toxic gas cloud

Answer 9

- Collapse of buildings - Falling objects

Answer 10

- Earthquake resistant buildings - Education - drills, practice and planning - Hazard mapping - identify areas of high risk

Answer 11

- Reinforced elevator shaft - Automatic shutters to prevent glass falling - Fire-resistant materials - Deep foundations - Rubber shock absorbers in foundation - Flexible joints for building to move - Interlocking steel frame - Counterweights on roof for vibrations

Answer 12

- Seismometers - detect tremors in ground before eruption - Tiltometer - detect changes in angle of slope - magma chamber grows - Gases - gases released in increasing quantities before eruption e.g. CO2 - Satellite observation - hot areas detected under earth's surface - Helicopter observation - aerial perspective can show danger under the surface - Volcano's history - frequency and violence of previous eruptions - Volcanologist - people skilled at predicting volcanoes

Answer 13

Mixture of ash, pumice and hot gases that flows down a volcano

Answer 14

Fast deadly mudslide made of water, mud and volcanic debris

Answer 15

- Fertile soil - high in magnesium and potassium - Popular attraction - good for tourism industry - Rare metals - gold, copper, zinc, silver, rubies and diamonds - Geothermal energy - heat from rising magma

Answer 16

An area of land which a river and its tributaries drain water from

Answer 17

- Edge of the drainage basin

Answer 18

- Where the river starts - Located at high elevation - Usually takes form of a spring in a mountain range or glacier melting

Answer 19

- End of the river - River water leaves the drainage basin to flow into a sea, ocean or sometimes a lake

Answer 20

- Other small rivers

Answer 21

- The point at which two rivers meet

Answer 22

- The movement of water into, around and out of the drainage basin

Answer 23

- Where water is added to the drainage basin system

Answer 24

- Processes by which the water within the drainage basin moves

Answer 25

- Where water is stored to be moved in the future

Answer 26

- Where water leaves the drainage basin system

Answer 27

- Precipitation - Water released from clouds as rain, snow, sleet or hail

Answer 28

- Interception - trees, vegetation or man-made objects stop precipitation reaching the land - Surface Storage - Soil moisture - Groundwater

Answer 29

- Infiltration - Surface water and precipitation soaks into the soil - Percolation - Overland flow - Water flowing across the surface of the land - also called surface run-off - Through flow - Water travels through the soil towards a river or lake - Groundwater flow - Movement of water through rocks creating underground water stores called aquifers

Answer 30

- River channel - Evaporation - Surface water is heated by the sun and rises into the sky as water vapor - Transpiration

Answer 31

- Discharge, width, depth, speed of flow and load quantity increases downstream - Load size and gradient decreases downstream

Answer 32

- Higher reliefs as nearer to source - Narrow and shallow - Steep gradient of land - Features such as rapids, potholes and waterfalls - Vertical erosion since water is moving rapidly & is turbulent

Answer 33

- Relief is less steep - Key features are meanders, oxbow lakes and flood plains - River is wider and deeper & Average speed of flow of water is higher - Main erosion is lateral

Answer 34

- Relief is mainly flat - Key features are levées and deltas

Answer 35

- Hydraulic action - Abrasion/Corrasion - Attrition - Solution/Corrosion

Answer 36

- Force and impact of moving water on banks and bed - air gets trapped in cracks and chunks break off as pressure increases

Answer 37

- Sediment carried by the river rubs against the banks and beds - largest cause in a river

Answer 38

- Sediment carried by the river crashes into each other and the banks - material becomes smoother and rounder

Answer 39

- Rocks dissolve in water or minerals e.g. limestone

Answer 40

Erosion is predominantly downward - happens when water is moving downstream from the source in the upper course

Answer 41

- Erosion is predominantly sideways and tends to occur in the middle and lower courses

Answer 42

- Suspension - Solution - Traction - Saltation

Answer 43

- Fine, light material carried along the river within the channel - not much energy needed

Answer 44

- Large boulders and rocks rolled along the river bed - too heavy to be picked up and carried

Answer 45

Minerals dissolved in water and hence are being transported

Answer 46

- Small pebbles and stones bounced along the river bed - river has enough energy to pick up medium sized material but can't carry it far

Answer 47

- River starts to deposit because from source to mouth, gradient reduces and therefore energy for unit water decreases - Large material is deposited first and finest material carried to the lower course to make flood plains & levées

Answer 48

- Vertical erosion via abrasion & hydraulic action & solution results in steep sided - Sides are weakened by weathering & vertical erosion - Gradual mass movement of material down the valley creates the v shape - Loose material can be transported - Can have interlocking spurs, narrow river channel and large angular boulders due to hydraulic action

Answer 49

- Layer of hard rock is located over a layer of soft rock - Soft tock is eroded by hydraulic action and abrasion - Plunge pool is created & erodes backwards - Layer of hard rock left - overhang - Eventually collapses due to a lack of support - Causes waterfall to retreat upstream - creates a gorge

Answer 50

- Caused by abrasion - Fast-flowing river causes water to swirl in areas where bed is not flat - Material e.g. pebbles carried by the river create small holes through abrasion - Material can get trapped and wear away the river bed even more - causes potholes

Answer 51

- Water is pushed to outer bend - creates a faster flow - Faster water can transport more material - causes greater erosion via abrasion - can create a river cliff - Water flows slowly on the inside of the meander - less material & deposition which leads to a slip-off slope

Answer 52

- Oxbow lake forms from the outside of the meander having faster flow and hence erosion - Particularly in flood, the river will erode through the narrow part between the loop to make a straight channel for water to travel faster - Leaves an oxbow lake

Answer 53

- Fine material carried in the river via suspension - High precipitation causes flooding - water breaks over top and spreads across the floor plain - Friction at river banks as flood water leaves - causes largest & coarsest material to be deposited at channel edges - creates levées - Finer material carried further across the flood plane - material known as alluvium - Levées help hold more water and reduce flooding but can raise level with increased deposition

Answer 54

- Forms at mouths of largest rivers - Flat area of sand and silt built into the sea and formed by deposition - River carrying large volumes of fine material enters a sea or lake - Speed of flow of the river slows due to decrease in relief and causes load to be deposited in layers - River then creates smaller channels - distributaries due to deposited materials forming small islands and diverting the main channel - Over time - deposited material builds out into sea - creating the delta

Answer 55

- Access to water for domestic use e.g. cooking, cleaning and drinking - Access to water to use in manufacturing - Access to water to irrigate crops and use in farming - Rivers used to transport goods from one town to another - Hydroelectric power - Recreation e.g. tourism, fishing - Flood plains create flat land suitable for building on as well as roads & transport routes - Deposition of alluvium creates fertile soils that farmers can use to grow crops

Answer 56

- Flooding can occur which can lead to: - Death & injury - Flooded and damaged homes - Lower property values and higher insurance costs for houses that are at risk of flooding - Disruption or destruction to transportation routes - Crops can be lost from farm land and livestock at risk of drowning - Damage to leisure facilities e.g. riverside parks or golf courses

Answer 57

- Chart that shows how discharge of a river reacts to a storm event - used to help manage the impact of flooding

Answer 58

- Building costly permanent structures that will affect river flow and stop water from causing damage & destruction

Answer 59

- Dams - Hold back water and can be used for hydroelectric power, water storage and tourism - can also form reservoirs - Barriers & flood walls - can control or stoop load waters from entering the city - can be expensive and stop ships moving up & downstream - Embankments or artificial levées - Increase amount of water which can be stored within the river channel - raise level of river channel and can increase severity of flooding - Dredging and straightening river channels - removes silt from river bed and increases water that can be stored to reduce floor risk - can increase risk & severity downstream

Answer 60

- Alternatives that work with the river and don't involve permanent structures or a lot of construction - cost less

Answer 61

- Afforestation - increasing number of trees in the area to increase interception and lag time to reduce peak discharge - Flood zoning Land of little value allowed to flood to prevent downstream flooding - Land-use zoning - Buildings of little or no cost built in areas of risk

Answer 62

- Procedures to attempt to protect people and property from a flood - Stores of sand & sandbags to build emergency flood barriers - System of sirens & warnings - Evacuation procedures that local emergency services are aware of and have practiced - Temporary, moveable metal barriers that can be installed quickly to protect individual houses

Answer 63

- Caused by wind - created by friction between the wind and the surface of the water - Size is affected by wind speed and fetch

Answer 64

- The distance that the wave travels

Answer 65

- When water moves up the beach towards the land - usually approaches at an angle due to the prevailing wind

Answer 66

- When the water flows back down the beach towards the sea - moves at a right angle to the beach

Answer 67

- Low & wide - Long wavelength, low frequency - Swash is stronger than the backwash - Material is deposited adding to the size of the beach - Forms a wide, sloping beach

Answer 68

- High & steep - Short wavelength, high frequency - Stronger backwash than swash - Material is removed from the beach by the waves - Waves erode the beach

Answer 69

- Hydraulic action - Abrasion / corrasion - Attrition - solution / corrosion

Answer 70

- Waves break against the cliffs - water & air into cracks in the rock - pressure forces cracks to get bigger and eventually break rocks apart

Answer 71

- Waves carry rocks and sediment that scrape against the cliffs as waves hit them - erode cliffs

Answer 72

- Rocks and sediment within the waves hut each other - breaks them into rounder smoother pieces

Answer 73

- Seawater dissolves some of the coastal rocks

Answer 74

- Rock type - Wave strength - Coastline shape - Exposure to waves and wind

Answer 75

- More resistant and less resistant rocks formed in alternating bands at right angles to the coast - creates headland and bays

Answer 76

- Rocks are parallel to the coastline - erosion happens evenly

Answer 77

- Traction - larger materials rolled by waves - Saltation - sediment bounces along by force of the water - Suspension - small sediment suspended - Solution - soluble minerals dissolved in the water

Answer 78

- Overall process by which material is moved along the beach

Answer 79

- Cliffs - Wave-cut platform - Cave - Arch - Stack - Stump

Answer 80

- Vertical faces of rock formed by erosion and weathering - most formed by one type of rock, hence concordant coasts

Answer 81

- Erosion at the bottom creates a wave-cut notch - hydraulic action and abrasion - Notch gets larger until the cliff above can't be supported - Cliff collapses and moves backwards - creates a wave-cut platform

Answer 82

- Headland is eroded by hydraulic action & abrasion - Cracks get larger and form a cave - Cave gets larger and erodes into an arch - Arch becomes thinner and can't be supported - Collapses and leaves a stack - Over time the stack erodes into a stump

Answer 83

- When waves approach an uneven coastline - Wave its the headland and therefore the energy is reduces as they enter the bay

Answer 84

- Spit - Saltmarsh - Bar - Tombolo - Barrier island

Answer 85

- Narrow stretch of sand with one end attached to the mainland - Spit forms when land changes direction and the sand is deposited - change in wind direction can make a hook at the end

Answer 86

- Saltmarsh can form on the land side of the spit - area where sediment has built up and is often flooded

Answer 87

- If spit joins an offshore island

Answer 88

- Sandy islands may form that run parallel to the coast - barrier islands and water behind is a tidal lagoon

Answer 89

- Ridges or hills of sand found on the landslide of

Answer 90

- Formed by coral polyps - tiny animals - Build calcium carbonate exoskeletons - Zooxanthellae algae within the coral - gives it its color & provides it w/nutrients - Coral provides algae with carbon dioxide - symbiotic relationships

Answer 91

- Subtropical and tropical regions - between 30˚north and south - Warm water - 23-25˚C - ejects water at 27˚C - Salt water - coral can't be in develop in fresh water - Clear, shallow water less than 60m deep and lots of sunshine for photosynthesis - silt and nutrients block sunlight

Answer 92

- Fringing reefs - most common type - form along coastlines of tropical areas and are usually separated from the land by a shallow lagoon - Barrier reefs - similar to fringing but the water that separates it from land is a deep-water lagoon - Atolls - rings of reef which form when fringing reefs develop around volcanic islands 0 island sinks below the water level leaving the atoll reef and a lagoon in the middle

Answer 93

- Diverse - 1500 species of fish - Tourist attraction benefits the economy - Great Barrier Reef supports 64,000 jobs and $6.4 billion AUD - Organisms can be used in medicines including treatment for cancer - Acts as coastal protection & absorb energy of waves during topical storms and tsunamis - reduce coastal erosion and flooding

Answer 94

- 75% under threat - Overfishing - affects food webs and reduces plant-eating fish - Pollution - chemicals disturb functions of coral and growth - eutrophication - Soil erosion - silt and sediment enter water & affect clarity - prevents photosynthesis - Temperature increase - thermal stress - coral ejects algae and therefore bleaches coral - Sea level rise - coral needs shallow water for sunlight - will die without photosynthesis - Increasing storm frequency and severity - severe storms damage coral - Ocean acidification - changes pH levels & - oceans absorb more CO2 and carbonate that coral needs - acid weakens existing coral - Tourism - boat trips spill diesel and anchors damage coral and tourists take bits as souvenirs

Answer 95

- Tree or shrub that is a halophyte - grows in saline water - Mangrove swamps or forests - groups of trees and shrubs

Answer 96

- Prop roots to support the trees due to little soil & absorb oxygen above the water - Leaves are waxy to reduce transpiration & leaves and roots excrete salt to get rid of it from the plant - old leaves store it and fall off - Seeds stay attached to trees and shrubs until they germinate so they can float on the water after falling

Answer 97

- Located off the coast - Found in tropical areas - Only grow in areas where temperature is 20˚C

Answer 98

- Diverse - have many species - Reduce and prevent coastal erosion by absorbing energy of waves - can reduce flooding - Can trap and filter pollutants released into the water - trap extra sediment from soil erosion - Provide income for local communities & source for timber that can be sold or used - Some plants can be used in medicines - Absorb CO2 & store it - Fishing

Answer 99

- Tourism - buildings destroy swamps or are removed for better views - Waste - solid waste collects among trees and shrubs causing danger - Soil erosion - sediments from soil erosion flow out of the rivers into the mangrove swamps and clog up roots and habitats - Pollution - pollutants can affect plants and wildlife - herbicides kill weeds but can hurt mangroves - Overharvesting - felling too many trees - not sustainable - Agriculture or shrimp farming - felling and clearance of mangrove swamps - Urbanization - expansion of coastal cities threatens mangroves - Dams and irrigation - reduces water flow and therefore increases salinity - mangroves cannot survive - Rising sea levels - mangroves can't survive large changes - Destruction of the coral reef - coral reef destruction exposes mangroves

Answer 100

- Tourism - Fishing - Often flat land is near - good for building settlements - Opportunities for ports for trading through imports and exports & ferry routes

Answer 101

- Storms / tropical storms - wind speeds of 120-250km/h - cause storm surges / temporary increase in sea level - cause flooding, coastal erosion, infrastructure damage and death/injury - Tsunamis - created by earthquakes, up to 30m high, storm surges, flooding, death/injury, building damage - Coastal erosion - Rise in sea level

Answer 102

- Sea wall - Groynes - Gabions - Rock armour - Revetments

Answer 103

- Concrete wall to prevent waves from reaching behind - wall is curved at the top to reflect water back - Hardwearing, lasts a long time, prevents erosion & flooding - Expensive, erodes eventually, needs maintenance

Answer 104

- Wooden barriers at right angles to the beach to slow longshore drift and absorb wave energy - Increases size of beach, improved tourism, absorbs wave energy, relatively cheap - May increase erosion along the coast due to less sediment, visually unattractive

Answer 105

- Cages of rocks to absorb wave energy & reduce erosion - Cheap, easy to construct, absorbs wave energy - Visually unattractive, cages eventually rust

Answer 106

- Rocks or boulders at the bottom of a cliff to absorb wave energy & slow erosion - Looks more natural than sea wall & gabions - Strong waves can move the rocks - need to be replaced, expensive to transport rocks and boulders

Answer 107

- Made of wood or concrete - placed at the top of the beach and are sloped to break waves & reduce erosion - Relatively cheap, less visual impact than sea wall or gabions - Reduces movement of sediment to other areas

Answer 108

- Beach nourishment - Beach reprofiling - Sand dune stabilization - Managed retreat

Answer 109

- Build beach by adding sand - creates higher and wider beach - forces waves to break earlier - Relatively cheap, larger beach is nicer too tourists - Removes sand from other areas and hence increases erosion - sand addition must be regular

Answer 110

- Moving sand to the top of the beach nearest land - increases steepness so waves break before reaching land - reduces erosion - Requires constant maintenance

Answer 111

- Keeps sand dunes in place as a barrier between land and sea - dunes absorb energy & reduce erosion - low cost - plant marram grass that grows and roots hold the sand together

Answer 112

- land is allowed to erode in areas of low value - Only costs are in compensation for landowners

Answer 113

- State of the atmosphere experienced day-to-day

Answer 114

- 30-year average of weather conditions taken into account with temperature and precipitation - Weather occurs in lowest part of atmosphere - troposphere

Answer 115

- Anemometer on top to measure wind speed - Weather instruments kept inside the white box to protect from wind, rain & animals - Slats on the side of the box (louvres) to allow air flow in the box - Made of wood to prevent absorption and conduction of heat - Painted white to reflect solar radiation - Places 1.25 meters above the ground to avoid temperature gradient of the ground - Placed away from buildings or trees that can affect wind flow and temperature gradients

Answer 116

- Measures precipitation - Normally built in the ground w/top above ground to collect precipitation - Cross-sectional area known accurately - Rain falls in the top ad enters through a narrow funnel - Water flows into glass measuring cylinder so the volume can be measured - Measurement recorded at same time each day

Answer 117

- Placed in Stevenson - out of direct sunlight - Records the minimum and maximum temperature over 24 hours - in celsius - Mercury or alcohol inside that expands when temperature increases & contracts at decrease - Moves the marker pins within the thermometer - Measurement recorded at same time each day

Answer 118

- Placed in Stevenson screen / out of direct sunlight - Measures humidity as a percentage - Two thermometers - standard thermometer and one wrapped in a fabric connected by a wick to a container with water to keep the bulb wet - Two temperatures for humidity by comparing data to values in special reference tables

Answer 119

- Outside to capture sunshine - Glass sphere focuses Sun's direct radiation onto a piece of card behind the glass sphere - Sunlight burns the card - length of the burn trace corresponds to duration of sunshine - Generally replaced by automated sun sensors

Answer 120

- Measures air pressure - mass of air pressing down - Inside Stevenson Screen - Records air pressure in millibars - higher value = higher air pressure - Important because it controls day-to-day weather - low pressure associates to changeable conditions & high pressure is more settled

Answer 121

- Measured wind speed - on the outside of the Stevenson Screen - Can't be too close to a building or trees - Cups that spin around in the wind - Speed recording can be taken in m/s can can be converted - Actual wind speed recorded for a daily record and can calculate maximum gust speed - Wind uses Beaufort scale of 0-12 - Now many digital handheld devices that can be used

Answer 122

- Direction that wind blows from - Direction of wind is recorded by points of the compass

Answer 123

- Form in many shapes and heights through the atmosphere - Type of cloud that forms is due to weather conditions in the atmosphere

Answer 124

- Fine wispy clouds in the sky - Cover most of the sky - Relatively transparent - Sometimes are circular like halos around the sun

Answer 125

- Fluffy circular clouds high in the sky - Sometimes hard to spot - Little tufts high up and look like ripples - Clouds are so high - no precipitation reaches the ground

Answer 126

- Thin stripy - like horse tails - Reflect colors of the sun at night - can glow purple, orange or yellow

Answer 127

- Form at mid-level and form in a layer - Cover the sky in a thin layer - sometimes see the sun poking through - Flat and featureless

Answer 128

- mid-level circular fluffy clouds - Patches of clouds in variety of sizes & shapes - Precipitation is rare

Answer 129

- Mixture of layers and balls of cloud at mid-level

Answer 130

- Tall and towering - fluffy stacked clouds move from the lower layers to the mid layers - Heavy rain, thunderstorms and lightning

Answer 131

- Thick dark layer of cloud - Usually is a single that rain is coming - Thick enough to block out the sun

Answer 132

- Grey layer of clouds which are low in the sky - Made of flat layers - Sometimes associated with light rain - Weather is overcast with little sunlight - May persist all day

Answer 133

- Fluffy, cartoon-looking clouds - Brilliant white w/sun - Detached, individual fluffy ball shapes

Answer 134

- Cloud cover measured in oktas / eights - e.g. 50% cover = 4 oktas - represents how much cloud is covering the sky at any given moment - is for all cloud types

Answer 135

- Often a map with bending lines - isobars - Represent air pressure

Answer 136

- Wind rose diagram - shows direction of wind - Radial lines from the center show percentage of time in the direction that win comes from - colors represent wind speed

Answer 137

- Large-scale ecosystems - Have living plants & animals & non-living parts e.g. watee

Answer 138

- The variety of plants and animals within an ecosystem - Tropical rainforest is most biodiverse, hot deserts and polar regions the least

Answer 139

- Producer - all plants, convert sunlight, water & CO2 to oxygen & energy - energy passed in chain and oxygen released to atmosphere - Primary consumer - animals that feed on producers - Secondary consumers - eat primary consumers and producers - Tertiary consumers - eat primary & secondary consumers alongside some who eat producers

Answer 140

- Special features developed that help an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment / ecosystem

Answer 141

- Between 10˚N & 10˚S - Sun is directly overhead all year round - energy is concentrated in small area hence is warmer - Zone of low pressure - hot and wet climate

Answer 142

- Average temperature of 26˚C - Small annual range of temperature (between 2-3˚C) - Heavy convectional rainfall of over 1500mm a year - High humidity

Answer 143

- Equatorial area affected by Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) - ITCZ - air masses from north and south of equator due to trade winds and zone of low pressure is created - Zone moves as the position of the sun moves due to tilt of the Earth - Low pressure - warm unstable air rising, cools, condenses and forms clouds with convectional rainfall - Orographic rainfall - warm moist air forced to rise as it passes over a mountain, then cools and condenses to form a cloud leading to precipitation

Answer 144

- Heavy daily convectional rain - Trees intercept rain - Some rain reaches the ground - Trees take up water quickly - Water evaporates rapidly --> step 1

Answer 145

- Plants and trees shed leaves all year - litter forms and decomposes rapidly - Nutrients enter the soil - Plants absorb nutrients - Abundant nutrients lead to rapid plant growth --> step 1

Answer 146

- Cutting down and clearance of trees

Answer 147

- Land clearance for agriculture - commercial or subsistence farming - Commercial felling for timber - Clearing land for settlements - Road building - Mining - Hydroelectric power infrastructure

Answer 148

- Biodiversity loss - Fragmented habitats - Local and international climate change - increased CO2 - Nutrient cycle broken - Increased hunting - access roads for logging give hunters access - Indigenous communities - Flooding

Answer 149

- Cover 1/5th of Earth's land surface - Found in every continent and are areas with a moisture deficit - Located around the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn

Answer 150

- Large diurnal temperature range - can exceed 50˚C at day and fall below 0˚C at night - Low rainfall - below 250mm a year - Low humidity

Answer 151

- Drier air is forced away from the equator by high altitude winds - then sinks at the tropics, warms and enables it to hold moisture making it less likely to rain - creates high pressure and therefore no clouds - Also occurs due to rain shadow / orographic rainfall

Answer 152

- Overgrazing, overcultivation and increasing populations at edges of desert push the desert outwards