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PSYCH 350 > Unit 3: Episodic Memory > Flashcards

Unit 3: Episodic Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What is the difference between procedural and declarative memory?

A

procedural: knowing how

declarative: knowing that

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2
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

autobiographical

temporally “dated”

interference from similar episodes

retrieval also serves as input (i.e., episodic memory is continually being updated)

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3
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

language (lexical memory)

world knowledge

not temporally dated

very well-organized

not changes or modified by retrieval of information (i.e., not continually updated)

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4
Q

What is content episodic memory?

A

representation of specific events

mini-events: “the word BOOK on List 2”
real-events: “driving in Cozumel”

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5
Q

What is an event representation (ER)?

A

a particular instantiation of a bound configuration of intersecting concepts

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6
Q

What are the links between event representation and concepts?

A

links between ER and concepts differ in strength (as do the links between concepts)

strength depends of: frequency, recency, co-occurrence, contiguity

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7
Q

How do cues in WM access conceptual information in LTM?

A

origin of cues: environment, self-generated, provided by experimenter

concepts “spread activation” to linked nodes (other concepts and ERs)

ERn activation > thresholdT, “ERn retrieved”

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8
Q

What are the implications of the relationship between cues and ERs?

A

the stronger the link between a cued concept and an ER, the greater probability that the ER will be recalled

the more ER-to-concept links there are, the greater the probability that a given cue will serve as an effective retrieval cue (elaboration, depth or processing)

context (internal and external) is encoded as part of the ER, and thus contextual features can serve as retrieval cues

increasing the similarity between encoding contexts and retrieval contexts increases the probability of retrieval (context effects, TAP)

probability of recall decreases, as number of ERs linked to a cued concept increases (interference)

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9
Q

What is encoding?

A

process of storing information in memory

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10
Q

What is storage?

A

the retention, alteration (& loss) of encoded information over time

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11
Q

What is retrieval?

A

recovery of previously stored information

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12
Q

What is rehearsal?

A

a set of techniques/strategies for encoding information into long-term memory

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13
Q

What are the two kinds of rehearsal?

A

maintenance: keeps information “alive” in WM; rote recycling; little effect on LTM

elaboration: “promotes” information to LTM; think about and connect

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14
Q

What is the task in the maintenance rehearsal study by Craik and Watkins (1973)?

A

monitor auditory list for words beginning with target letter (e.g., G)

required to recall “last” target word at end of list (list could end at any time)

session final recall - recall as many words as possible

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15
Q

What is the manipulation in the maintenance rehearsal study by Craik and Watkins (1973)?

A

number of words between appearance of target word

assumed equal to amount of rehearsal

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16
Q

What were the results of the maintenance rehearsal study by Craik and Watkins (1973)?

A

results: recall unaffected by number of rehearsals

interpretation: rote (maintenance) rehearsal fails to transfer info to LTM

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17
Q

What is the elaborative encoding task study by Bradshaw & Anderson (1982)?

A

tasks: recall “target” fact

design: encoding context x delay

target only: immediate (no delay)
target + 2 irrelevant facts (delay 1 week)
target + 2 relevant facts

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18
Q

What were the results of the elaborative encoding task study by Bradshaw & Anderson (1982)?

A

encoding relevant facts improved recall
encoding irrelevant facts hampered recall
effect was magnified by delay

interpretation:
relevant elaboration increases number of retrieval path
relevant facts fosters generation of appropriate cues
irrelevant facts cause interference

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19
Q

What is the issue of spacing effects?

A

rehearsal improves memory

does the temporal distribution of rehearsals matter?

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20
Q

What is the research strategy of studying spacing effects?

A

holding number of presentations constant, manipulate the lag (delay) between presentations

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21
Q

What was the Madigan (1969) study of spacing effects?

A

method: words studied twice at 6 different lags

results: recall increased with lag

other findings: spacing affects recognition, obtained with textbook materials

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22
Q

How does deficient processing account for the spacing effect?

A

habituate to recently presented material (less “interesting”)

metamneomic inference: short lags –> overestimation of learning –> decreases (or redistributed) rehearsals

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23
Q

How does encoding variability account for the spacing effect?

A

recall depends in part on study context matching test context

context changes with time

the greater the lag, the more different the encoding contexts, and therefore the more likely that one of them will overlap with the test context

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24
Q

What is the definition of subjective organization?

A

organizing and structuring a list of items, but without the experimenter-supplied category structure

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25
What is the subjective-organization phenomena?
recall better for lists composes of randomly presented sets of category members than for random words category members clusters during study and recall recall of random word lists becomes increasingly organized with practice
26
What is the study by Bower et al. (1969) on experimenter-provided organization?
materials: 4 hierarchically organized trees, 112 words in all, 4 study-test blocks two groups: organized: words in "correct" position in trees random: words assigned to positions randomly results: recall increased over blocks recall: organized >> random
27
How is encoding efficiency a benefit of organization?
strengthens preexisting superordinate-subordinate links & intra-category links no need to generate and encode new elaborations
28
How is retrieval efficiency a benefit of organization?
category label can be used as retrieval cue category knowledge can be used to generate items, which can be recognized as list members
29
What is the study by Slamecka and Graf (1978) on the generation effect?
generate condition: hot - c___; fast - s___ subjects generate second word given first letter and a rule such as antonym read condition: hot - cold; fast - slow result: recall/recognize better for generated than read words
30
What is the definition of the generation effect?
information you generate is better remembered than information you only hear or read
31
What is the explanation of the generation effect?
depth of processing: generation condition requires deeper processing than read condition
32
What is the levels of processing model by Craik & Lockhart (1972)?
"new" processing model for understanding human memory essence of levels: emphasis on processes, not stores memory is an outgrowth of perception/processing shallow ("perceptual") vs. deep ("meaningful") processing
33
What is the shallow versus deep distinction in the levels of processing model?
shallow: sensory analyses (physical properties) pattern recognition (stimulus identification) elaborative processing (imagery, associations) deep:
34
What was the study by Hyde & Jenkins (1973) on levels of processing?
tasks: study - perform orienting task test free recall design: orienting (very shallow, shallow, deep) x learning (incidental, intentional) + no orienting control materials: 24 words; 1 word per 3 seconds varied depth of processing: count e's, count number of letters, make pleasantness judgment varied intention to learn: just do the above task (incidental), do the task and learn the list (incid + intent), learn the list (intentional-only)
35
What were the results of the study by Hyde & Jenkins (1973) on levels of processing?
LoP affected intention did not semantic process almost equals intentional study
36
What was Craik & Lockhart's interpretation of their results in their levels of processing study?
cognitive system organized hierarchically input processed at different levels: sensory --> semantic product of earlier analysis is input to latter analysis memory trace "simply a record of those analysis" "deeper more sematic analysis yields records that are more durable" traces: richer, more elaborate, semantic encoding more distinctive
37
What are the criticisms of the levels of processing model?
circularity = there is no independent measure of depth in the framework how can you rank order these levels? is it green? is it an animal? does it contain an R? is it GORF reversed? does it rhyme with DOG?
38
What is the value of the levels of processing model?
places emphasis on processes introduced a technique - incidental learning with an orienting task - for studying encoding processes fits well with transfer appropriate processing view
39
What is context and memory?
context: stimuli present "at the same time" as the target eventn = content + contextni + contextnj context encoded (almost) automatically with content encoding context can serve as retrieval path test context can serve as a retrieval cue general prinicple: when test context ~ study context, performance increased
40
What is an independent context?
the information setting is stored together with the trace of the stimulus focal element, but does not fundamentally change the trace external: environmental, location internal: physiological, emotional
41
What is an interactive context?
an interactive encoding occurs when the context actually changes the way in which the stimulus focal element is encoded semantic: strawberry jam vs. traffic jam
42
What is the encoding specificity principle?
the probability of recalling an item at test depends on the similarity of its encoding at test and its encoding at study
43
What is state-dependent memory?
general approach for studying context effects: materials studied in StateX, maerials tested in StateX or StateY state-dependent memory effect observed when memory is better when study and test states match than when they mismatch
44
What is the Godden & Baddeley (1975) study on context-dependent memory?
either studying on land or underwater either tested on land or underwater participants: 16 divers materials: 40 words results: LL >> LU UU >> UL
45
What is the Eich & Metcalfe (1989) study on mood dependent memory?
induce mood by using music read or generate neutral words during study either studying with happy or sad music either tested with happy or sad music generation effect: generate >> read mood congruence: H/H >> H/S S/S >> S/H
46
What is the Goodwin et al. (1969) study on state-dependent memory and alcohol?
manipulation: 10 oz of 80 proof vodka; 24 hour study-test delay standard 2x2: I/I, S/S, I/S, S/I results: S/S < S/I, I/I < I/S, S/I < I/I fewest errors S/S S/S is better than S/I I/I is much better than I/S
47
What is the Eich et al (1975) study on state-dependent memory and marijuana?
manipulation: marijuana vs tobacco, 4 hour study-test delay standard 2x2: m/m, t/t, m/t, t/m results: t/t > t/m; m/m > m/t; t/t >/= m/m point c --> encoding better when straight
48
What were the results and interpretations of studies on state-dependent memory and alcohol?
sober@study > intoxicated@study, regardless of test state reason: attention, comprehension, & elaboration processes more effective when sober intoxicated@study then sober@test condition particularly bad reason: poor (idiosyncratic) encoding; bad match between encoding & retrieval conditions state-dependent effect stronger for recall than recognition reason: recall requires more cues, and state provides context cues
49
What is the general idea of interactive contexts?
event traces encode meaning meaning emerges from the meanings of the focal element and its semantic context retrieval cues that access encoded meaning will be more effective than those that do not
50
What is a retrieval cue?
a hint that can be used to evoke an item that has been learnt but cannot be spontaneously recalled
51
What is the Thomson & Tulving (1970) study on encoding specificity with interactive contexts?
aim: demonstrate that recall depends on match between encoded and cued meaning materials: 24 word pairs deign: input contexts (2) x output cues (3) input contexts: strong: hot - COLD weak: wind - COLD output cues: strong, weak, no-cue recall best when input and output match mismatch --> misdirects search
52
What was the Fisher & Craik (1977) study on LoP and encoding specificity?
aim: demonstrate LoP and ES in same experience design: encoding task (rhyme, category, sentence) x encoding response (yes, no) x retrieval cue (rhyme, category, sentence) results: LoP effect: category >/= sentence >> rhyme encoding specificty: encoding-retrieval cue matches > mismatches
53
What are the main points of encoding and retrieval?
memory trace is combination of the "stimulus" and the context context broadly defined: environmental, physiological, semantic, procedural performance depends on: encoding processes, similarity between study context & test context
54
What is the central idea of the testing effect?
taking a test enhances learning and leads to better retention over time
55
What is the central distinction within the testing effect?
testing for assessment vs. testing to enhance learning
56
What is the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) study on the testing effect?
experiment #1: stimuli: 2 prose passages from TOEFL prep book (~260 words each) learning condition (within-subjects): restudy (two 7 min periods of study) vs. test (7 min period of study, followed by 7 min period of test) retention interval (between subjects): 5 min, 2 days, or 1 week experiment #2: similar to experiment 1, accept: 4 blocks, and only 2 delay conditions
57
What were the results of the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) study on the testing effect?
got worse over time 5 minutes: S/S is better than S/T 2 days: S/S lose a lot more than S/T 1 week: same effect from 2 days is maintained
58
What is the summary of testing effects discussed in lecture?
repetition: more tests > fewer tests feedback: delayed > immediate > none spacing: spaced testing > massed testing
59
What are the study-phase retrieval-focused approaches to testing effects?
retrieval --> elaboration/organization --> additional retrieval pathways transfer appropriate processing processes required during study-phase testing are very similar to processes test-phase testing processes required during study-phase study are not
60
What is decay?
information in memory fades with time and disuse "memory trace spontaneously deteriorates over time"
61
What is retrieval failure?
retrieval cues do not access sought after information
62
What is interference?
retrieval of sought-after information hindered by presence of other information "memory either masks or obliterates other information"
63
What is the Ebbinghaus (1885) study on the 1st forgetting function?
task: learned lists of 13 CVCs to criterion (2 perfect runs through list) manipulation: study-test delay dependent variable: savings in relearning main findings: amount of forgetting decreases with time interpretation: forgetting driven by decay; information lost at a constant rate
64
What is a sample decay function?
rate of forgetting constant over time amount of forgotten/unit decreased with time
65
What is necessary to prove decay?
control proactive interference: all prior experience must be held constant control retrospective interference: all subsequent experience must be help constant
66
What are the empirical problems with decay?
very long-term memory (permastore): for high school classmates for foreign languages
67
What is Anderson's defense of decay in that decay functions exist?
a number of long-term forgetting functions look like power-law, decay functions - demonstrate that information is lost at a constant rate
68
What is the study by Brown et al. (2009) on decay functions in autobiographical memory?
word-cue method: respond to word cue with 1st AM that comes to mind; estimate date of retrieved event participants: age of 20/30 years old, location of 7 countries
69
What is Anderson's defense of decay of the physiological argument?
it may be that there is not explanation of decay at the purely psychological level... it has been shown that synaptic efficacy deteriorates with lack of use, and apparently this deterioration follows a power law thus, it may be that mechanism underlying the very powerful lawful functions
70
What is the Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) experiment on retrieval failure?
materials: 48 words - 12 categories x 4 instances group: uncued - free recall cued - cued with the 12 category names results: cued (62%) > uncued (40%) conclusion: in uncued condition, information was available, but not accessible availability = probability information was stored accessibility = degree to which info can be retrieved
71
What is interference?
retrieval of sought-after-information hindered by presence of other information
72
What is negative transfer?
previously learning impedes new learning
73
What is proactive interference (PI)?
older knowledge impedes access to new knowledge interference forward in time
74
What is retroactive interference (RI)?
new knowledge impedes access to old knowledge interference backward in time
75
What is associative interference?
atemporal - related knowledge competes with target
76
What is the Anderson (1974) study of the fan effect?
study: 26 sentence - the person is in the location test: time recognition of presented and recombined sentences design: sentences/person (1 or 2) x sentences/location (1 or 2) RT increased 60 msec/link (i.e., additional links interfere with retrieval) explanation: activation passed to target decreased, as number of links increase additional finding - "chunking" decreases fan effect
77
What are the classic studies of proactive and retroactive interference?
classic studies: paired associate learning study: cue-target word pairs (CUP-tree) test: given cue, recall target (CUP-???) manipulate presence, timing & similarity of additional targets
78
What are the general findings of the classic studies of proactive and retroactive interference?
cued recall: control > experimental similarity effects: the more similar B is C, the more server the interference
79
How is the Brown & Peterson Task related to PI and RI?
task: learn triplet --> filled delay --> recall triplet finding: recall drops off very rapidly with delay original interpretation: forgetting caused by decay in STM, forgetting indicates the rate of loss from STM alternative interpretation: forgetting caused by PI from similar materials implication: PI should be reduced when new list differs from prior lists
80
What is the Wickens (1972) study on release from PI?
task: Standard Brown-Peterson task procedure: trials 1 through 3: triples drawn from same semantic category trial 4: triple drawn from different category
81
What were the results of the Wickens (1972) study on release from PI?
PI increases (recall decreases) across same-category trials when category changes, recall increases; release from PI RPI increase as similarity between initial category and new category finding generalize to real-world material (news stories)
82
What is the activation-discrimination interpretation of release from PI?
activation: concepts activated when accessed, activation decays rapidly retrieval: search some (cued) portion of memory for most active concepts PI: difficult to discriminate between many activated concepts RPI: relatively easy to select active concepts among inactive ones

PSYCH 350 (7 decks)

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