Unit 4: Misinformation Effect, Implicit Memory, Dual Process Recognition

Question 1

What is the general idea of RI in the real world?

Answer 1

new task-relevant information makes to difficult or impossible to recall or reconstruct prior beliefs, knowledge, responses

a good thing: knowledge revision

a bad thing: hindsight bias, misinformation effect

Question 2

What is the definition of hindsight bias?

Answer 2

the hindsight bias involves the tendency people have to assume that they knew the outcome of an event after the outcome has already been determined

Question 3

What is the experimental condition in a typical 3-phase design in studying hindsight bias?

Answer 3

phase 1: respond to a target question –> R1

phase 2: learn the answer to target question

phase 3: recall initial response (R1)

Question 4

What is the control condition in a typical 3-phase design in studying hindsight bias?

Answer 4

phase 1: respond to a target question –> R1

phase 2: learn the answer to control question

phase 3: recall initial response (R1)

Question 5

What are the different accounts of the experimental condition in a typical 3-phase design in studying hindsight bias?

Answer 5

assert that solution either “biases” knowledge base and/or reconstruction process

solution is source of RI making retrieval of R1 difficult

Question 6

What is recollection bias?

Answer 6

% correct recall of R1: control > experimental

standard associate interference (phase 2 answer competes with R1)

Question 7

What is reconstruction bias?

Answer 7

in experimental control: phase 3 response shifted in direction of phase 2 information

in control condition: phase 2 information has no affect in phase 3 response

phase 2 information cause a revision of underlying beliefs

when R1 not retrieved, answer reconstructed with revised information

Question 8

What is the misinformation effect?

Answer 8

general phenomenon: memory for events distorted by exposure to inaccurate/misleading post-event information

benign aspect: post-event narration/discussion can alter autobiographical memories

forensic issue: post-event questioning can alter eyewitness testimony

Question 9

What is the basic paradigm of studying the misinformation effect?

Answer 9

a event is witnessed (on tape)

post-event questioning used to introduce misinformation

correct post-event information: did the repairman set down his hammer before taking the calculator?

misleading post-event information: did the repairman set down his screwdriver before taking the calculator?

neutral: did the repairman set down his tool before taking the calculator?

test: recognition for details of original event; two item forced choice; did you see a hammer or a screwdriver?

finding: % correct as a function of post-event info type; correct > neutral&raquo_space; misleading

Question 10

What is memory overwriting?

Answer 10

misleading information overwrote the original information, destroying original information and thus modifying the event memory

Question 11

What is source monitoring failure?

Answer 11

errors reflect a failure to identify the source: people remember information, but misremember where it came from

information that people are mislead about is often that which they make source errors for

Question 12

What is memory coexistence (RI)?

Answer 12

misleading information obscures original memory because it is more recent

Question 13

What is the support for memory coexistence?

Answer 13

memory better when original context is reinstated

memory better if people are warned of misleading information before test

Question 14

What are the central notions of the biased guessing account by McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985)?

Answer 14

target and foil (misinformation) can coexist

either or both can be forgotten

magnitude of misinformation effect depends on: prob (target recalled), prob (foil recalled), %(foil selected over target)

implication: if foil removed from reso test then, MISLED = CONTROL

reason: “remembered” misleading inform no longer competing with original information

Question 15

What is the test for the biased guessing hypothesis?

Answer 15

introduce modified recognition test

predictions for recognition accuracy:

biased guessing: modified misleading = control

memory change: modified misleading < control

misleading info should decrease memory for original info regardless of test

Question 16

What was the method used in McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985) to test the biased guessing hypothesis?

Answer 16

views slides, 10 minute filler, read narrative, 10 minute filler, 36-item 2IFC recognition test

“the man slid the calculator beneath the ____ in his tool box”
standard test: hammer vs. screwdriver
modified test: hammer vs. wrench

Question 17

What were the results of McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985) to test the biased guessing hypothesis?

Answer 17

standard test: replicates misinformation effect: misled &laquo_space;control

modified test: consistent with biased guessing, misled = control
access to original info unimpaired by post-event info
consistent with coexistence and source monitoring accounts

Question 18

What is the Belli (1992) study on misinformation with modified procedure?

Answer 18

44 slides (mother and child arguing)
4 crit slides (coffeemaker, blender, toaster)
500 word narrative with 2 misleading statements

2IFC modified reco test

design - manipulates timing of misinformation

Question 19

What were the results of the Belli (1992) study on misinformation with modified procedure?

Answer 19

with 5-min delay: mod misled = control (consistent with biased guessing)

with 5-day delay: mod misled < control (at least consistent with coexistence and RI)

Question 20

What is Belli’s explanation of the blocking hypothesis?

Answer 20

post-event information impairs access to original traces when:
original trace is weak
post-event information strong

Question 21

What are the factors affecting the strength of misinformation effect found by Loftus (2005)?

Answer 21

timing: the longer the delay between the event and misinformation, the stronger effect

warnings: pre-info warning weakens effect, post-info warning also reduces magnitude of misinformation effect

age: children and elder most susceptible

personality: dissociation score predicts effect

Question 22

What is the summary of the misinformation effect discussed in class?

Answer 22

memory impairment, coexistence, and source monitoring errors are not mutually exclusive

as the work on hindsight bias indicates, new information can: modify existing information, coexist with existing information, block access to existing information

Question 23

What is inhibition?

Answer 23

well established at neural level

increased activation of one unit, decreases activation in others

inhibition also observed in visual attention/object perceptions

Question 24

What is the inhibition processes in memory performance?

Answer 24

retrieval of ITEMI decreases the likelihood that ITEMJ will be retrieved

assumption: inhibition is an active process

has the flavor of repression/suppression, but functions to increase memory efficacy not to “protect the self”

Question 25

What is the Anderson, Bjork & Bjork (1994) study of retrieval induced forgetting?

Answer 25

aim: demonstrate that retrieval can produce forgetting materials: category-instance pairs (COLOR-red; PET-dog, FRUIT-apple) 6 pairs/category 3-phase procedure: study: each pair presented once for 5 seconds retrieval practice: complete category-stem with list instance each category-stem presented 3 times test phase: given each category name --> recall all instance

Question 26

What were the results of the Anderson, Bjork & Bjork (1994) study of retrieval induced forgetting?

Answer 26

practice effect: PIPC >> UIUC UIUC > UIPC if not rehearsed, being an instance of a practiced category hinders recall interpretation: UIPC inhibited during practice in order to make retrieval of practiced items easier

Question 27

What is collaborative inhibition?

Answer 27

memory is worse when recalled as a group each person has a retrieval plan (in a sense RI) other retrieval plans disrupt others

Question 28

What are the implications for forgetting?

Answer 28

probability of recall decreases, as numbers of ERs linked to a cued concept increases other possible mechanisms: decay, knowledge revision and biased reconstruction inhibition

Question 29

What is implicit memory?

Answer 29

any form of memory that does not require consciousness and can operate without a person being aware that he is using his memory people show evidence of memories for experiences that they cannot consciously retrieve memory without awareness

Question 30

What is the strategy for studying implicit memory?

Answer 30

demonstrate that prior experience affects performance on tasks that do not require retrieval or recognition of those prior experiences such tests are called indirect tests

Question 31

What are the two types of implicit tests?

Answer 31

word-related test judgments

Question 32

What are word-related test?

Answer 32

fragment completion word-stem completion perceptual ID lexical decision: word-association, general-knowledge, category-instance generation

Question 33

What are judgments?

Answer 33

fame, truth, liking, r-w estimation

Question 34

What are common indirect tests?

Answer 34

fragment completion: __e__e__c__ stem completion: fre__ __ __ __ __ __ anagrams: ticilipm lexical decision: word/non-word? TREB perceptual identification: read word (identify object) presented VERY briefly

Question 35

What is the evidence for implicit memory on indirect tests?

Answer 35

indirect tests typically use improved performance as the measure of implicit memory priming: the improvement in performance on a subsequent occasion due to processing on a pervious occasion

Question 36

What are priming effects?

Answer 36

experimental condition: a prior exposure to stim control: "no" prior exposure to stim priming fragment, stem, anagram: dv -- % complete: exp > control perceptual identification dv -- % correct: exp > control lexical decision: dv -- RT: exp < control

Question 37

What were the results of the Tulving, Schacter, & Stark (1982) study on priming effects?

Answer 37

reco decreased with dealy frag unaffected by delay delay causes a dissociation between reco & frag tests implication: test tap different "forms" of memory

Question 38

What is the Jacoby (1983) study on double dissociating implicit and explicit memory?

Answer 38

aims: using same materials demonstrate that explicit memory increased with depth of processing and implicit memory increased with perceptual similarity materials selected so that: as depth of processing increased, perceptual similarity decreased

Question 39

What is design of the Jacoby (1983) study on double dissociating implicit and explicit memory?

Answer 39

encoding task (antonym generation, read antonym in context, read target alone) x test (recognition, perceptual ID 40 ms)

Question 40

What were the predictions in the Jacoby (1983) study on double dissociating implicit and explicit memory?

Answer 40

recognition: deeper processing should produce better performance percp ID: priming should become stronger as study and test materials become more similar

Question 41

What were the results of the Jacoby (1983) study on double dissociating implicit and explicit memory?

Answer 41

w/out prior exposure (control): perc ID = 60% in all conditions: Perc ID > 60%, priming reco increased with depth of processing Perc ID increased perc similarity (Perc ID increased LoP) evidence for 2 types of memory

Question 42

What is the transfer appropriate process theory?

Answer 42

assumes performance depends on match between processing at study and processing at test analogous to encoding specificity

Question 43

What are the two types of processes in transfer appropriate process theory?

Answer 43

data-driven (perceptual) - processing of physical features conceptually-driven (semantic) - processing for meaning

Question 44

What are the indirect tests for data-driven processes?

Answer 44

perceptual fragment completion stem completion anagram completion lexical decision perceptual identification

Question 45

What are the indirect tests for conceptually-driven processes?

Answer 45

word association category-instance generation general knowledge

Question 46

Why are tests for transfer appropriate process theory typically confounded?

Answer 46

direct tests require/benefit from conceptual processing indirect tests require/benefit from data-driven processing however, it is possible to unconfound test-type from process-type (e.g.): fragment-cued recall test: data-driven, direct general knowledge test: conceptual, indirect

Question 47

What is the Blaxton (1989) study on transfer appropriate processing?

Answer 47

goal to demonstrate: data-driven processing can affect direct tests data-driven processing does not necessarily affect indirect tests design: study mode (visual, auditory) x explicitness (direct, indirect), level (data-driven, conceptually-driven) test modality: always visual

Question 48

What are the competing prediction in Blaxton (1989) study on transfer appropriate processing?

Answer 48

standard view: modality match should affect only indirect tests for both implicit tests: visual > auditory for both explicit tests: visual = auditory TAP view: modality match should affect data-driven tasks only priming depends on match between study/test processing match & not on test instructions: for both data-driven tests: visual > auditory for both conceptually-driven tests: visual = auditory

Question 49

What were the results of the Blaxton (1989) study on transfer appropriate processing?

Answer 49

priming effect (v > a) for data-driven tasks only: indirect: frag completion direct: graphemic-cued recall not all indirect tests display priming effect Gen Know (indirect, conceptual): V = A

Question 50

What are the implications of transfer appropriate processing theory?

Answer 50

it is the match between processing at study and processing at test that produces priming effects priming can affect performance on both indirect tests and direct tests implication: at least for direct tests, performance reflects both implicit and explicit memory question: is it also the true that indirect tests reflect both implicit and explicit memory?

Question 51

What is the Nissen & Bullemer (1987) study on fixed sequence learning?

Answer 51

task: press button under 1 of 4 lights sequence type: repeating -- same pattern reports every across every 10 trials random -- lights presented at random (no sequence) details: 800 10-trial sequences

Question 52

What were the results of the Nissen & Bullemer (1987) study on fixed sequence learning?

Answer 52

repeated: RT rapidly decreased over blocks random: RT little changes over block repeat-condition Ps unable to report sequence conclusion: sequence learning/use was unconscious/implicit subjects are sensitive to the presence of the sequence even when they deny knowing that there was a sequence

Question 53

What is rule-based sequence learning?

Answer 53

artificial grammars -- general approach use artificial grammar to define/generate "grammatical sequences)

Question 54

What is the Reber (1967) study on artificial grammar?

Answer 54

aim: can people learn "grammatical" rules w/out intention two groups: grammatical: (implicitly) learn sets of grammar-generated letter sequences random: learn sets of randomly generated letter sequences test: grammatically judgment: 50% grammatical 50% ungrammatical

Question 55

What were the results of the Reber (1967) study on artificial grammar?

Answer 55

phase-1 learning: grammatical faster than random phase-2 grammatical-judgment task: grammatical group: 79% random group: chance grammatical group could not state the rules explicitly conclusion: grammatical group (implicit) learned the rules/grammar during Task 1 rules: facilitated strong learning; enabled classification

Question 56

What are the different approaches to implicit learning?

Answer 56

rules (Reber) instance-based (Brooks): encode examples/instances, assess similarity between target and stored instances fragment-based (Perruchet): learn string fragments (bigrams, trigrams), reject strings lacking learned fragments problem: some knowledge might be explicit

Question 57

What are dual-process accounts?

Answer 57

general view -- two sources of info analytic, explicit, controlled nonanalytic, implicit, automatic assumption - "no process pure tasks"

Question 58

Why is the interpretation of dual process accounts a problem for indirect tests?

Answer 58

contamination issue generalizes to: direct tests, judgment tasks

Question 59

What are recognition tasks?

Answer 59

process of list of items: STIM 1... STIM n test: "was STIMx on prior list?" STIMx on list --> OLD STIMx not on list --> NEW

Question 60

What is the dual-process account of recognition by Mandler (1980)?

Answer 60

reco judgments based on 2 types of information recollection: judgment based on successful retrieval of information about the study episode familiarity: judgment based on assessed familiarity (fluency) evidence: remember/know judgments, process dissociations

Question 61

What are the differences between remembering and knowing?

Answer 61

2 phenomenal experiences remember = successful recollect of details of prior episode know = high levels familiarity, in the absence of recollection remember --> R know --> A

Question 62

What is the Rajaram (1993) study on remembering/knowing?

Answer 62

experiment 1: levels of processing R: semantic > rhyme; K: deep = shallow experiment 2: pictures vs words R: picture > words; K: picture = word general findings: factors that increase recollection, increase remember (LoP, repetition, short (vs long) delay problems: poor terminology, judgmental criteria, r/k as confidence judgment converging evidence: process dissociation studies

Question 63

What was the Umanath & Coane (2020) study on what remember and know mean?

Answer 63

issue: how do "real" people understand "remember" & "know" participants: "real" people, non-cog psychologists, cog psychologists, not memory, memory psychologists task: provide opened responses to: "when you say I remember something, it's because" "when you say I know something, it's because"

Question 64

What were the results of the Umanath & Coane (2020) study on what remember and know mean?

Answer 64

"remember" rarely means "recollection", sometimes refers to events "know" rarely means "familiarity", sometime refers to semantic knowledge

Question 65

What was the Jacoby (1991) study on process dissociation?

Answer 65

two independent process: recollective (R) and automatic (A) strategy: set processes in opposition --> manipulate factors affecting recollection 2 tests: recollection --> yes (inclusion) recollection --> no (exclusion) goal: compute values for R & A data: inclusion = R + A(1 - R) exclusion= A91 - R) parameter estimates R = inclusion - exclusion A = exclusion / (1-R)

Question 66

What is the direct test for process dissociation?

Answer 66

read a list of words - List 1 hear a list of words - List 2 two recognition tests: both tests include List 1, List 2 and novel words inclusion test: respond "old" if word was on either list exclusion test: respond "old" only if word was on List 2

Question 67

What is the inclusion test for process dissociation?

Answer 67

respond "old" if word was on either list intentional (recollective) process will have a certain probability of concluding "old" for List 1 words - R automatic process will also have a certain probability of concluding "old" for List 1 words - A if either process concludes "old", the subject will respond "old" P(old) = R + A(1 - R)

Question 68

What is the inclusion test for process dissociation?

Answer 68

respond "old" only if word was on List 2 subject will only respond "old" to List 1 words if two things happen: the automatic process responds "old" due to a feeling of familiarity - A the intentional process fails to recognize the word (if it had, it would recall it was from List 1) - (1 - R) P(old) = A(1- R)

Question 69

What are the implications of process dissociation procedure?

Answer 69

there are no process pure tasks both recollective/explicit & automatic/implicit processes can influence performance on both direct and indirect tests of memory