Unit 304 general anatomy Flashcards
(216 cards)
1
Q
What does biology mean?
A
life processes of living organisms
2
Q
What does human anatomy mean?
A
structures of the human body and their relationship to one an other
3
Q
What does human physiology mean?
A
how the body normally functions
4
Q
What cell does not contain a nucleus?
A
red blood cell
5
Q
What does a cell contain?
A
nucleus and DNA
6
Q
What are tissues?
A
specialised cells that are groups together and carry out similar functions to cells e.g. skin, bones
7
Q
What are systems?
A
related functions to organs e.g. digestive system
8
Q
What are organs?
A
group of tissues that preform different functions e.g. heart
9
Q
What are muscle cells:
A
stimulated by electrical impulses to generate forces and produce motion.
10
Q
What are nerve cells:
A
initiate and carry electrical impulses to distant areas of the body along their length to produce many actions.
11
Q
What are epithelial cells:
A
cover the whole body as skin. They seperate areas of the body from each other and from the external environment.
12
Q
What are connective tissue cells:
A
present in the body in different forms such as cartilage found in ligaments, bone, dentine
13
Q
How do we fuel cells to enable the energy they need to work?
A
Food
14
Q
What does homeostasis mean?
A
Maintaining the body temperature above or below that of the surroundings
15
Q
Why do the body cells require oxygen?
A
to burn the food eaten to produce the energy they require to function.
16
Q
How is oxygen brought into the body?
A
respiratory system
17
Q
How is oxygen transported around the body to every cell that needs it?
A
circulatory system
18
Q
Cardiovascular system function:
A
transport blood to the lungs for oxygenation
transport of oxygenated blood to body
transport of deoxygenated blood back to the lungs
19
Q
Respiratory system function:
A
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the atmosphere.
20
Q
Digestive system function:
A
digest, process and absorb nutrients from food
excrete waste products
21
Q
nervous system function:
A
give consciousness
regulate and co-ordinate body activities
22
Q
Musculoskeletal system function:
Bone, cartilage etc
A
support and protect internal organs
allow movement
23
Q
Immune system function:
A
defend against infection
produce red and white blood cells
24
Q
endocrine system function:
A
regulate and co-ordinate body functions
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Integumentary system function:
skin
protect against injury and dehydration
maintains body temp
26
Where is the heart located?
Thorax (LEFT SIDE)
Connected by blood vessels
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What 2 actions does the heart carry out?
pumps oxygenated blood from the lungs to the body tissues
collects deoxygenated blood and transports it to the lungs
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What colour is oxygenated blood?
bright cherry red
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What colour is deoxygenated blood?
dark reddish purple
30
How many chambers does the heart have?
4
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What are the 2 upper chambers of the heart called?
atria
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What are the 2 lower chambers of the heart called?
ventricles
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What blood does the right side of the heart transport?
deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs
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What blood does the left side of the heart transport?
oxygenated blood form the lungs to the rest of the body
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Deoxygenated blood is collected from the whole body through?
Veins
pulomary artery
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Deoxygenated blood is transported to the right atrium via...
inferior and superior venae cavae
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What is inbetween the 2 right heart chambers?
tricuspid valve
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When blood has been oxygenated it is pumped through the one-way valve into the left ventricle, what is the valve called?
mitral valve
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Oxygenated blood is carried through the body by?
Arteries
pulmonary vein
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What is the largest artery in the body?
Aorta - carries oxygenated blood
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What is a sinoatrial node?
heartbeat - muscle cells
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What is the circulatory system?
enclosed loop of blood vessels with the heart at its centre.
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Arteries decrease in size as they distance away from the heart, what do they become?
arterioles and then capillaries
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Why are capillaries one cell thick?
can be used to burn food nutrients and create energy
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Deoxgenated blood from the upper body is transported to the...
superior vena cava
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Deoxgenated blood from the lower body is transported to the...
inferior vena cava
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The difference in pressure within the arteries can be measured and recorded by taking what?
A patients blood pressure
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What does systole mean?
when the heart muscles contract
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what does diastole mean?
when the heart muscle relaxes
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carotid pulse:
either side of the neck (carotid arteries lie) - neck vertebrae
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Brachial pulse:
inner surface of the elbow (brachial arties lie)- elbow joints
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radial pulse:
inner surface of the wrists (radial arteries lie) - radius bone lower arms
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femoral pulse:
top of the inner thighs (femoral arteries lie)- femoral bone upper legs
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How do veins differ to arteries?
veins have little elastic tissue compared
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The circulatory system is filled with how much blood in an adult?
5 litres
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What temperature should blood be kept at through the process of homeostasis?
37`C
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Blood consists of several cell types floating in straw coloured fluid called...
Plasma
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What are erythrocytes?
red blood cells
disc shaped cells, NO nucleus - cant divide or replace themselves
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What are leucocytes?
white blood cells
defend the body against attack by micro-organisms and disease.
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What are platelets?
thrombocytes - fragments of larger blood cells called megakaryocytes.
NO nucleus found in red bone marrow
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As erythrocytes (red blood cells) cannot replicate, how are more produced?
red marrow of certain bones e.g pelvis
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What do erythrocytes mainly do?
carry oxygen around the body
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What gives red blood cells the bright red colour?
protein haemoglobin
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Where are leucocytes made?
several areas of the immune system e.g. lymph nodes
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What is the purpose of platelets?
they are concerned with the coagulation of blood at the site of injury to prevent excessive blood loss.
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What is plasma?
part of the blood that carries the blood cells within it
90% water with plasma proteins floating within
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What does plasma act as?
transport system for the body by carrying numerous cells and chemicals from one area to another when needed.
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How may heart conditions affect dental treatment?
does not cope adequatley during stressful situations e.g. experiencing pain
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How may blood disorders affect dental treatment?
may prevent blood clotting, so patients may experience an uncontrolled haemorrhage
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How may medications affect dental treatment?
certain medications may react with some types of local anaesthetic such as those containing adrenaline e.g. thryoxine, antidepressants
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medications that can affect dental treatment:
HRT, anticoagulants, diuretics (hypertension), antihypertensive drugs
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What causes heart failure?
when the pumping efficiency of the heart itself is inadequate, resulting in its inability to pump enough blood with each beat for the body to function normally.
May involve one ventricle or both
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When does heart failure occur?
problem with the heart or medical conditions
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What is myocardial infarction?
Heart attack
reduction in the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart usually because of a clot causing a section of the muscle to die
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What is the correct word for a clot?
thrombus
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What is myocarditis?
inflammation of the heart muscle
viral infection
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What is valvular disease?
can affect any of the 4 valves, filling or emptying of the heart is inadequate
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What is angina?
chronic heart failure
condition of myocardial ischaemia (reduced blood flow)
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What is angina caused by?
the narrowing or partial blockage of the coronary arties which supply the heart
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What is renal failure?
chronic heart disease
kidney failure results in the patient being unable to remove sufficient waste fluids from the body during urination.
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What is hypertension?
chronic heart disease
raised blood pressure at rest, the heart has to pump more strongly to move blood from the left ventricle into the aorta
constant strain on cardiac muscles
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Why are some conditions categorised as chronic heart failure?
as the ineffectiveness of the pumping action of the heart deteriorates OVER TIME
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What will patients suffering from chronic heart failure experience during dental treatment?
breathlessness, tiredness, chest pain when they are anxious
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What is the condition oedema?
where fluid is being retained in the body tissues rather than being urinated.
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When the right side of the heart is failing fluid collects where?
the ankles
peripheral oedema
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When the left side of the heart is failing fluid collects where?
the lungs
pulmonary oedema
serious as it could cause death
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When a clot (thrombus) is circulating what is it called?
embolus
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What obstruction is angina?
partial obstruction of one or more coronary arteries
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What obstruction is myocardial infarction?
full obstruction of one or more coronary arteries
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What obstruction is a stroke?
full obstruction of an arterty supplying the brain
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What obstruction is a pulmonary embolism?
full obstruction of one of the pulmonary arteries supplying the lungs, often by an embolus developing as a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in the leg veins
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what does DVT stand for?
deep vein thrombosis
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What is a cardiac arrest?
sudden failure of the heart to beat at all or to beat rapidly but ineffectively without pumping the blood.
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Asystole means?
heart has stopped beating
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fibrillation means?
heart is beating quickly without pumping the blood
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What is rheumatic fever?
patient has suffered a previous illness that has caused damage to the heart valves.
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What does bacteraemia mean?
bacteria in the blood
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What is bacterial endocarditis?
inflammation of the inside of the heart
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What is anaemia?
group of disorders that affect the oxygen carrying capacity of erythrocytes, so that insufficient oxygen is available for use by the body tissues.
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What can cause anaemias?
heavy blood loss
lack of efficient erythrocyte production
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What is a haemorrhage?
excessive bleeding
warfarin, aspirin - anticoagulants
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What are the main components of the respiratory system?
two lungs- immerse air filled sacs
located in the thorax
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How are the lungs connected?
alveoli and bronchioles
join to larger tubes and become the two main bronchi
connect to the trachae or windpipe
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Where is the larynx?
throat
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where is the nasopharynx?
back of the mouth and nose
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Where does the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occur?
alveoli
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Air breathed in (inspired) from the atmosphere contains how much oxygen?
21%
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Air breathed out (expired) contains how much oxygen?
16%
and 4% carbon dioxide
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How much % difference in oxygen breathed in n out is there?
5%
used by the body tissues to help produce energy to function/
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The process of ventilation occurs approximately how many times per minute in an adult at rest?
16
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The whole respiratory tract is lined by cells that produce a sticky coating, what is this called?
mucus
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mucus has microscopic hair like projections called?
cilia
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Trachea is the..
wind pipe
114
oesophagus is the...
food pipe
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what is the epiglottis?
flap that prevents food going into the wind pipe (trachea)
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Explain the steps of the gaseous exchange
1. breath in - air/oxygen (mouth/nose)
2. trachea
3. left or right lung
4. bronchi
5. bronchioles
6. alveoli - gasesous exchange
7. breathed out - co2 waste
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Gaseous exchange takes place in the...
alveoli
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What is bronchial asthma?
hypersensitivity response to inhaled particles that compromises the patients breathing by constricting their airways.
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What is anaphylaxis?
severe allergic reaction, shuts down the airways and prevents adequate breathing.
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What is bronchitis?
inflammation of the bronchi following a respiratory infection
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What is emphysema?
abnormal widening and enlargement of the alveoli, preventing adequate gasesous transfer which occurs during respiration
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If bronchitis and emphysema occurs together what is it called?
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
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What is the digestive system more correctly referred to as?
gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
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What do enzymes do?
chemically break down food into nutrients
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What is another word for chewed?
masticated
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What are acidic stomach contents neutralised by?
alkaline bile
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Where is bile made and stored?
liver and stored in the gallbladder
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What does the portal vein do?
carries the nutrient rich blood to the liver for storage
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The liver acts as...
the chemical factory of the body
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How may regurgitation conditions affect dental treatment?
acid reflux - enamel erosion
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How may vomiting affect dental treatment?
erosion e.g. bulimia, pregnancy
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How may liver disease affect dental treatment?
effects of any drugs given during dental treatment are increased (potentiated) or take longer to wear off.
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How may malnourishment affect dental treatment?
prone to infections, poor wound healing abilities over time
prone in elderly patients
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How may medications affect dental treatment?
long term steriod medication
patient may not be able to cope aswell in stressful events = collapse
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What is dysphagia?
difficulty in swallowing
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what is gastro-oesophageal reflux?
regurgitiation, stomach contents pass back (reflux) into the oesophagus.
burning sensation in the stomach, pain can be mistaken for angina or heart attack
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what is a hiatus hernia?
the junction of the oesophagus and the stomach moves up through the opening of the diaphram and becomes trapped there.
restricts normal digestive movements
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What is the hiatus?
oesophagus passes through the diaphragm to join the stomach in the abdominal cavity at a natural opening
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What are gastric ulcers?
when acid damage is severe, the stomach wall is eroded and an ulder develops
caffeine, nicotine
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What is bulimia?
psychological condition where the patient has a fear of becoming overweight and self induces vomiting after each meal.
= erosion
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What is crohn`s disease?
chronic inflammatory disease that can affect any part of the digestive system.
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What is ulcerative colitis?
a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the lining of the colon and rectum only.
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What is type 1 diabetes?
severe form
younger patients - occurs rapidly
destruction of the specialised area of the pancreas where insulin is produced
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What is type 2 diabetes?
develops gradually
older patients - obesity is a symptom
insufficient insulin production - genetic
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Why is insulin given to diabetic patients?
so the patient does not become hyperglycaemic (high blood pressure) or hypoglycaemic(low blood pressure)
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Patients with diabetes also have what difficulities that can affect dental treatment?
develop infections easily
poor wound healing - periodontal disease
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What affect can liver disease have on a patient?
the ability to store and use food nutrients efficiently, and unable to detoxify many drugs including LA.
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What are the 3 main liver diseases?
- cirrhosis - damage of the liver cells (cystic fibrosis)
- hepatitis - inflammation of the liver
-cancer of the liver - both of the above conditions can enable liver cancer.
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The brain and the spinal cord form the..
central nervous system
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The peripheral nerves, automatic nerves and enteric nerves form the...
peripheral nervous system
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What are the sensory organs?
eyes, ears, tongue, nose
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Peripheral nerves - Sensory nerves
carry information from the body to the brain
sensations: pain, temperature, touch, specialised sensations
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Peripheral nerves - Motor nerves
carry information from the brain to the body
muscles of mastication and facial expression
control the flow of saliva - autonomic nerves
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Motor nerves: somatic nerves
carry impulses to the musculoskeletal system to allow voluntary movement
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Motor nerves: autonomic nerves
carry impulses to blood vessels and interal organs
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Motor nerves: enteric nerves
carry impulses to the GIT(digestive system), to regulate blood flow during digestion
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What are simple electrical impluses?
information and actions are generatred as a consequence and are transmitted throughout the nervous system
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The wave like surge of energy is called
nerve impluse
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What are the brain and spinal cord covered by, they are three membranous layers called
meninges, the inner two layers being seperated by the cerebrospinal fluid.
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What does the cerebrospinal fluid act as
shock absorber capacity to protect the brain and spinal cord
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The brain consists of two cerebrospinal hemispheres that take up the vast majority of the skull = 4 lobes
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Frontal lobe is forming
the forehead region
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Parietal lobes are forming
the top sides of the head
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Temporal lobes are forming
the lower sides of the head in the ear region
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Occipital lobes are forming
the back of the head
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At the back of the brain beneath the occipital lobe lies the cerebellum, what is this concerned with?
control of balance and posture and movement
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Beneath the middle region of the brain the cerebal hemispheres lie over a structure called the brainstem or medulla oblongata, which is in control of?
control centre for all the basic brain functions necessary for life
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nerves supplying the neck and head region leave the brain directly from its undersurface through various natural bony openings called...
foramina
emerge as the 12 pairs of cranial nerves
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All cranial nerves except for one are composed of both sensory and motor components which one is this?
Hypoglossal nerve 12th
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5th cranial nerve TRIGEMINAL function is:
sensory - pain, temperature, touch of teeth, and oral soft tissues
Motor - muscles of mastication
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7th cranial nerve FACIAL function is:
sensory - taste from anterior 2/3 of tongue
Motor - muscles of facial expression
Autonomic - salivary glands
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9th cranial nerve GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL function is:
sensory - taste from posterior tongue
motor - control of swallowing
autonomic - salivary glands
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12th cranial nerve HYPOGLOSSAL function is:
motor - tongue muscles
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How may a previous stroke impact dental treatment?
nervous system
communication, swallowing and oral hygiene maintenance may be difficult for the patient.
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How may epilepsy impact dental treatment?
nervous system
patient may have seizures at any time, dental team should be able to manage this successfully.
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How may medications impact dental treatment?
nervous system
affect on soft tissues
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A stroke occurs when?
there is a sudden alteration in cerebral blood flow
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Stroke: cerebral thrombosis
blood clot forms within a brain artery, which reduces or cuts off the oxygenated blood supply to that region
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Stroke: cerebral embolism
blockage of a brain artery by a loose blood clot that has formed elsewhere in the body, detaches from the blood vessel wall and circulates to the brain.
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Stroke: cerebral haemorrhage
cerebral blood vessel ruptures and bleeding occurs within the skull, increasing pressure on the brain.
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Transient ischaemic attack: TIA
small partial blockage of a cerebral artery - mild visual disturbance or brief memory lapse
indicates that part of the brain has a reduced blood flow
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Epilepsy means
the electrical activity of the nerve cells in the brain become temporarily abnormal and disorganised - seizure
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Epilepsy: Grand mal seizure
patient falls down unconscious, body stiffens and patient begins to twitch and jerk uncontrollably - tonic clonic seizures
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Epilepsy: Petit mal seizure
patient has a momentary loss of consciousness with no associated abnormal movements e.g. daydreaming - absence seizures
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Mild seizures are called
absence seizures
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Severe seizures are called
tonic clonic seizures
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If a grand mal seizure lasts over 5 minutes what state is the patient said to be in?
status epilepticus
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What medical condition is said to cause gingival hyperplasia due to the medication phenytoin sodium?
epilepsy
gingival hyperplasia - gum overgrowth
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What is bell`s palsy?
temporary paralysis of the VII cranial nerve facial nerve (7th)
any inflammation caused by the parotid salivary glands can cause bells palsy
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Anterior is the
front
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Posterior is the
back
192
superior is the
upper
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inferior is the
lower
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The trigeminal nerve splits into 3 divisions: what is the ophthalmic division?
sensory supply of the soft tissues around the eye and upper face
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The trigeminal nerve splits into 3 divisions: what is the maxillary division?
sensory supply of the upper teeth, the maxilla and the middle area of the face
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The trigeminal nerve splits into 3 divisions: what is the mandibular division?
sensory supply of the lower teeth, mandible and lower area of the face
motor supply to the muscles of mastication
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Jaw opening occurs due to the actions of a separate group of muscles called the...
suprahyoids
lie beneath the mandible and are attached to the hyoid bone in the throat.
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The maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve splits into a further 5 branches which are all sensory, what are the 5 branches?
- anterior superior dental nerve
- middle superior dental nerve
-posterior superior dental nerve
-greater palatine nerve
-nasopalatine nerve
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What is the anterior superior dental nerve?
sensation from the upper incisor and canine teeth and their labial gingivae, soft tissues of the upper lip and around the nostrils
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What is the middle superior dental nerve?
sensation from the upper pre-molar and the anterior half of the upper first molar teeth and their buccal gingivae
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What is the posterior superior dental nerve?
sensation from the posterior half of the upper first molar and the 2nd n 3rd and their buccal gingivae
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What is the greater palatine nerve?
sensation from the palatal gingivae of the upper molar, premolar and posterior half of the canine teeth
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What is the nasopalatine nerve?
previously called the long sphenopalatine nerve
sensation from the palatal gingivae of the upper incisor and anterior half of the canine teeth
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The middle and anterior superior dental nerve emerge through which foramen?
infraorbital foramen
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The posterior superior dental nerve emerges through which foramen?
greater palatine foramen - opposite the 3rd molar tooth
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The nasopalatine nerve emerges through which foramen?
incisive foramen - behind the central incisors
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The mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve emerges from the skull through the foramen and splits into 4 branches which carry both sensory and motor components, what are the 4 branches?
- Inferior dental nerve
-lingual dental nerve
-long buccal nerve
-motor branch
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What is the inferior dental nerve?
sensation from all the lower teeth, and from the buccal or labial gingivae of all EXCEPT molars. Soft tissues of the lower lip and chin
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What is the lingual nerve?
sensation from all lingual gingivae of the lower teeth, the floor of the mouth and touch sensation from 2/3 anterior tongue
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What is the long buccal nerve?
sensation from the buccal gingivae of the lower molar teeth
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What is the motor branch?
supplies stimulation to the muscles of mastication, effect jaw closing and chewing movements.
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The inferior dental nerve enters the mandible through which foramen?
mandibular foramen
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What is the lingula?
small bony projection located on the front edge of the ramus
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At the end of the branch the inferior dental nerve emerges on the outer surface of the mandible through which foramen?
mental foramen
situated below the apices of the premolars.
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From the point where the inferior dental nerve passes through the mental foramen the nerve is then called?
mental nerve
supplies buccal gum of the incisors canines and premolars, plus the lower lip and chin
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