Unit 3B- Learning

Question 1

Behavioral perspective

Answer 1

Examines how observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interactions with the environment.

Question 2

Associative learning

Answer 2

A process’s of learning in which an individual forms connections between events that occur together
- Classical conditioning ( Association )
- Operant conditioning ( Reinforcement & Punishment )

Question 3

Habituation ( Non-Associative Learning )

Answer 3

Occurs when organism grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or enduring stimulus.

Question 4

Classical Conditioning

Answer 4

A learning method where we associate two stimuli, enabling us to anticipate events.

Question 5

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 5

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) rings a bell. The Russian physiologist’s early twentieth-century experiments — now psychology’s most famous research — are classics, and the phenomenon he explored we justly call classical conditioning.

Question 6

Cognitive Learning

Answer 6

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Question 7

Neutral Stimulus

Answer 7

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Question 8

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Answer 8

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (such as food in the mouth).

Question 9

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Answer 9

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally — naturally and automatically — triggers an unconditioned response UCR).

Question 10

Conditioned Response (CR)

Answer 10

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Question 11

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Answer 11

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Question 12

Acquisition

Answer 12

The initial learning of an association.

Question 13

High Order Conditioning

Answer 13

Higher-order conditioning, also known as second-order conditioning, in classical conditioning is when a neutral stimulus becomes linked to a conditioned stimulus.

Question 14

Extinction

Answer 14

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)

Question 15

Spontaneous Recovery

Answer 15

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest, suggesting that extinction does not erase the association but suppresses it temporarily.

Question 16

Stimulus Generalization

Answer 16

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus, as a result of the conditioning process.

Question 17

Stimulus Discrimination

Answer 17

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them, learned through the conditioning process.

Question 18

Counter conditioning

Answer 18

Changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with a different experience.

Question 19

John Watson and “Little Albert” Experiment

Answer 19

Pavlov’s work also provided a basis for Watson’s (1913) idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson and his graduate student Rosalie Rayner (1920; Harris, 1979) studied an 11-month-old infant to show how specific fears might be conditioned. Like most infants, “Little Albert” feared loud noises but not white rats. Watson and Rayner presented a white rat and, as Little Albert reached to touch it, struck a hammer against a steel bar just behind his head. After seven repeats of seeing the rat and hearing the frightening noise, Albert burst into tears at the mere sight of the rat. Five days later, he reportedly generalized this startled fear reaction to the sight of a rabbit, a dog, and even a furry coat. A modern reanalysis questioned Watson’s evidence for Albert’s conditioning, but the case remains legendary (Powell & Schmaltz, 2020).

Question 20

Taste Aversion

Answer 20

A learned association between the taste of a particular food and feeling sick, often occurring after only one pairing.

Question 21

One-Trial Conditioning

Answer 21

Learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things.

Question 22

Biological Preparedness

Answer 22

The innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli and responses that are relevant to their survival, such as food and danger.

Question 23

One-Trial Learning

Answer 23

a special case of classical conditioning that only requires one experience for the association to be made between a CR and CS

Question 24

Operant Conditioning

Answer 24

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment.

Question 25

B.F. Skinner

Answer 25

For his pioneering studies, Skinner designed an operant chamber, popularly known as a Skinner box (Figure 3.8-2). The box has a bar (a lever) that an animal presses — or a key (a disk) the animal pecks — to release a reward of food or water. It also has a device that records these responses. This creates a stage on which rats and other animals act out Skinner’s concept of reinforcement, defined as any event that strengthens (increases the frequency of) a preceding response. What is reinforcing depends on the animal and the conditions. For people, it may be praise, attention, or a paycheck. For hungry and thirsty rats, food and water work well. Skinner’s experiments have done far more than teach us how to pull habits out of a rat — they have explored the precise conditions that foster efficient and enduring learning. - Skinner developed a behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control. Working from a rooftop office in a Minneapolis flour mill in 1943, Skinner and his students looked at the flocks of pigeons sitting on the windowsills and jokingly wondered, “Could we teach a pigeon how to bowl?” (Goddard, 2018; Skinner, 1960). By shaping pigeons’ natural walking and pecking behaviors, they did just that (Peterson, 2004). Skinner later used his new learning principles to teach pigeons other unpigeon-like behaviors, including how to walk in a figure 8, play table tennis, and keep a missile on course by pecking at a screen target.

Question 26

Law of Effect

Answer 26

The Law of Effect Behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

Question 27

Edward Thorndike

Answer 27

Social intelligence is the know-how involved in understanding social situations and managing yourself successfully (Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987). Psychologist Edward Thorndike first proposed the concept in 1920, noting that “the best mechanic in a factory may fail as a [supervisor] for lack of social intelligence” (Goleman, 2006, p. 83). A critical part of social intelligence, emotional intelligence, consists of four abilities (Mayer et al., 2002, 2012, 2016): Perceiving emotions (recognizing them in faces, music, and stories, and identifying our own emotions). Understanding emotions (predicting them and how they may change and blend). Managing emotions (knowing how to express them in varied situations, and how to handle others’ emotions). Using emotions to facilitate adaptive or creative thinking.

Question 28

Shaping

Answer 28

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior, leading to the development of a complex behavior or skill.

Question 29

Superstitious Behavior

Answer 29

Accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing desired outcomes, even when they are not.

Question 30

Reinforcement

Answer 30

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Question 31

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 31

Presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

Question 32

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 32

Removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

Question 33

Reinforcement Discrimination

Answer 33

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement.

Question 34

Reinforcement Generalization

Answer 34

The tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement.

Question 35

Primary Reinforcers

Answer 35

Things we naturally like, such as food or water. - an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Question 36

Secondary Reinforce/ Conditioned Reinforcement

Answer 36

Things we learn to like because they're connected to primary reinforcers or other things we like. Money, paise, grades in school, points, applause, trophies or medals. - a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. -

Question 37

Continuous Reinforcement

Answer 37

Continuous reinforcement would occur if the dog trainer decides to give the dog a treat every single time it successfully completes a command, especially during the initial stages of learning a new behavior.

Question 38

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Answer 38

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time it occurs, leading to slower extinction but also less consistent responding. Once the behavior is established, the trainer might switch to partial reinforcement to maintain the behavior over a longer period without the need for a reward every time. In partial reinforcement, treats are given only occasionally or on a schedule (fixed or variable), which has been shown to make learned behaviors more resistant to extinction

Question 39

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Answer 39

Fixed Interval “FI” Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a predictable pattern of behavior.

Question 40

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Answer 40

Fixed Ratio “FR” Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with short pauses after each reinforcement.

Question 41

Variable-Ratio Schedules

Answer 41

Variable Ratio “VR” Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high and steady rate of responding with minimal pauses.

Question 42

Variable-Interval Schedules

Answer 42

Variable Interval “VI” Reinforcement is delivered after varying amounts of time have passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a steady but moderate rate of responding.

Question 43

Punishment

Answer 43

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future.

Question 44

Positive Punishment

Answer 44

Adding an aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

Question 45

Negative Punishment

Answer 45

Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

Question 46

Learned Helplessness

Answer 46

A belief that one has no control over their circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events, leading to feelings of passivity and lack of effort to change the situation.

Question 47

Instinctive Drift

Answer 47

Animals may go back to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through training (operant conditioning).

Question 48

Cognitive Maps

Answer 48

Mental representations of spatial relationships or layouts, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their environment.

Question 49

Latent Learning

Answer 49

Learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or motivation, but is not demonstrated until there is a reason to do so.

Question 50

Vicarious Conditioning

Answer 50

Learning by observing the consequences of others' actions, without directly experiencing those consequences oneself.

Question 51

Social Learning Theory

Answer 51

theory that emphasizes the importance of observing, imitating, and modeling behaviors, as well as the role of cognitive processes, in learning from others within social contexts. Modeling, Learning by observing and imitating the behaviors of others.

Question 52

Modeling

Answer 52

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Question 53

Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll experiment

Answer 53

n experiment by Albert Bandura (1925–2021), the pioneering researcher of observational learning (Bandura et al., 1961): A preschool child is working on a drawing, while an adult in another part of the room builds with Tinkertoys. As the child watches, the adult gets up and for nearly 10 minutes pounds, kicks, and throws around the room a large inflated toy clown called a Bobo doll, yelling, “Sock him in the nose…. Hit him down…. Kick him.”`

Question 54

Mirror Neurons

Answer 54

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Question 55

Prosocial Behavior

Answer 55

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Question 56

Antisocial Behavior

Answer 56

negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior.