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AP Psych > Unit 5: Cognition > Flashcards

Unit 5: Cognition Flashcards

1
Q

Effortful processing

A

encoding that requires attention & conscious effort

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2
Q

Automatic processing

A

unconscious encoding of incidental info (ex: time, frequency, space, well-learned info ex: word meanings)

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3
Q

Procedural memory

A

the type of memory that we use to do everyday tasks / memory of physical actions (stored in cerebellum)
knowing how to ride a bike
Well-practiced knowledge
Conditioned associations: smells = place
info abt: space, time, frequency

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4
Q

Recall

A

process: retrieval of info not currently in your conscious awareness but was learned previously
ex: fill-in-the-blank test

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5
Q

Recognition

A

a person is able to identify items/something previously learned. recognizing
ex: multiple choice test

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6
Q

Relearning

A

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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7
Q

Encoding

A

Process of getting new info into memory syst (ex: extracting meaning)

process of sensing information, processing info & storing it to be retrieved later

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8
Q

Storage

A

Process of retaining encoded info over time

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9
Q

Retrieval

A

Process of getting info out of memory storage

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10
Q

Parallel processing

A

Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously

Brain’s natural mode of info processing for many functions

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11
Q

Sensory memory

A

Immediate very brief recording of sensory info in memory syst

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12
Q

Spacing effect

A

Tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved thru massed study/practice

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13
Q

Testing effect/practice effect/test-enhanced learning

A

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading info

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14
Q

Deep processing

A

encoding based on the word’s meaning (semantically), best for retaining info

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15
Q

Shallow processing

A

encoding on basic level, based on structure/appearance of words

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16
Q

Selective attention

A

Completely Focused on a specific topic/stimulus; keeping awareness on a specific stimulus among all sensory input / certain info & letting the rest go

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17
Q

Divided attention

A

Focused on multiple tasks at once makes it harder to focus on 1 task

Attempt to split focus but loses info from both procedures

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

Problem: is caused by the brain mechanism that allows us to switch between multiple different tasks

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18
Q

Metacognition

A

Ability to control thoughts / be aware of them
“Thinking abt thinking”

ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, & then to monitor and adjust one’s performance on that task

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19
Q

Implicit memory (procedural) / Non-declarative

A

Acquired thru automatic processing, formed w/o awareness

Retaining learned skills/classically conditioned associations but cannot be consciously recollected

info/knowledge that affects behavior or task performance

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20
Q

Long-term memory

A

Relatively permanent & LIMITLESS memory storehouse of syst
Includes knowledge, skills, experiences

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21
Q

Sensory memory (echoic, iconic)

A

Immediate, very brief recording of sensory info in memory syst

Echoic: a momentary sensory memory of AUDITORY stimuli, if attention is some where else, sounds/words can still be recalled w/ in 3-4 seconds

Iconic: a momentary sensory memory of VISUAL stimuli; a picture image memory lasts no more than a few 1/10s of a second

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22
Q

Prospective memory

A

Remembering to do smthn/perform an action in the future/at a certain time

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23
Q

Explicit memory (semantic, episodic) / Declarative

A

Acquired thru effortful processing, formed thru studying, rehearsing, processing

Episodic: includes memories of personal experienced events

Semantic: includes memories of general knowledge of facts, names, & concepts

Retaining facts & experiences that u can consciously know and “declare” / recollect

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24
Q

Hippocampus

A

Neural center in limbic syst, helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts & events for storage

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25
Q

Memory consolidation

A

Neural storage of a long-term memory

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26
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

An increase in cell’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, neural basis for learning & memory

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27
Q

Priming

A

Activation, often unconsciously of particular associations in memory

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28
Q

Noam Chomsky

A

LANGUAGE, BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM believed that humans have an inborn or “native” predisposition to develop lang

Biological determinism

He believes that lang acquisition is innate & that children effortlessly learn the lang of home

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29
Q

Hermann Ebbinghaus

A

The forgetting curve / spacing effect

found that memory for novel information fades quickly, then levels out

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30
Q

Wolfgang Kohler

A

Insight / gestalt

showed that humans arent the only creatures to display insight
Chimpanzee experiments

discovered that learning can occur when we gain insight into an entire situation, as opposed to focusing only on an individual part

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31
Q

Elizabeth Loftus

A

Misinformation/Eyewitness/False Memories
Demonstrated misinfo effect + memory reconsolidation

(that when ppl = exposed to subtle misleading info, ppl may misremember)

studied repressed memories & false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed & falsely created by techniques ( leading questions & illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony)

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32
Q

George A. Miller

A

Proposed that we can store abt 7 pieces of info in short-term memory
Short term memory/chunking influential

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33
Q

Encoding

A

process of getting info into the memory syst

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34
Q

How do we encode explicit memories / declarative memory?

A

thru effortful processing

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35
Q

How do we encode implicit / nondeclarative memories?

A

thru automatic processing

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36
Q

Chunking

A

organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically

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37
Q

Mnemonics

A

memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery & organizational devices

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38
Q

Spacing effect:

A

tendency for distributed study/practice to yield better long-term retention than thru mass study/practice

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39
Q

Testing effect

A

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading info (aka retrieval practice effect / test enhanced learning)

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40
Q

Shallow processing

A

encoding on a basic level (word appearance/structure)

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41
Q

Deep processing

A

encoding semantically (meaning of words/symbols)

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42
Q

Semantic memory

A

category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge of facts, names, and concepts unrelated to specific experiences

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43
Q

Episodic memory

A

Memory of a specific event that happened while the subject was present.
Ex: Like a TV episode

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44
Q

Memory consolidation

A

Neural storage of a long-term memory

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45
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

a clear sustained memory of a emotionally significant moment/event (9/11)

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46
Q

Hippocampus

A

Neural center in limbic syst, helps process explicit (conscious) memories of facts & events for storage

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47
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

An increase in cell’s firing potential after brief rapid stimulation, neural basis for learning & memory

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48
Q

Priming

A

Activation, often unconsciously of particular associations in memory

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49
Q

Encoding Specificity principle

A

the idea that cues & context specific to particular memory will be most effective in helping u recall it

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50
Q

Mood-congruent memory

A

tendency to recall memories that are consistent w/ one’s current good/bad mood

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51
Q

Serial position effect

A

our tendency to recall best the last(recency effect) & first items(primacy effect) on a list

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52
Q

Retrieval cues

A

When encoding a target piece of info, u associate it w/ other things to better remember (visual cues or senses)

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53
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

An inability to form new memories

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54
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

An inability to retrieve info from one’s past

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55
Q

Source amnesia

A

Faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned/imagined

56
Q

Encoding failure

A

failure to process information into memory, inattention or lack of deep processing

57
Q

Storage decay

A

The course of forgetting stored info is initially rapid, then levels off with time & eventually fades away

Ebbinghaus

58
Q

Proactive interference

A

old memories interfere with new ones; ex. can’t memorize new phone number because of the old one you have had forever

59
Q

retroactive interference

A

new memories interfere with older one; ex. can’t remember old phone number

60
Q

Repression

A

psychoanalytic: the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. Freud

61
Q

Pseudoforgetting

A

phenomenon of forgetting something that you never learned

62
Q

Consolidation

A

hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory

63
Q

Reconsolidation

A

Process where previously stored memories are retrieved & are potentially changed before being stored again

64
Q

Misinformation effect

A

Occurs when misleading info has distorted one’s memory of an event

65
Q

Hippocampus

A

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
In temporal lobes

Explicit memories for facts and episodes are processed here & fed to other brain regions for storage

Switching station between STM and LTM. Sleep is essential in this process

66
Q

Thalamus

A

Encodes sensory memory into STM

67
Q

Cerebellum

A

Implicit memories, especially procedural memories
processing sensory input, coordinating movement

output and balance, & enabling nonverbal learning & memory

68
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories (non-declarative or implicit) for skills

69
Q

Amygdala

A

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

70
Q

Frontal lobes (semantic & episodic memory)

A

Semantic memory: Recalling a password and holding it in working memory, for ex, would activate the LEFT frontal lobe

Episodic memory: Calling up a visual party scene would more likely activate the RIGHT frontal lobe

71
Q

Where are memories stored?

A

Thru out cortex

72
Q

Long term potentiation

A

an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

73
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

Idea that cues & contexts specific to a particular memory = most effective in helping us recall it

74
Q

Short-term memory

A

activated memory that holds a few items for a brief time before the info is stored / forgotten. Located in the frontal lobe.

75
Q

Long-term memory

A

the relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills & experiences.

76
Q

Procedural (implicit)/nondeclarative memory

A

how-to memory that you don’t have to think about, it’s independent of conscious recollection

Goes thru cerebellum (brain part that plays an important role in forming & storing implicit memories).

77
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment / event
memory is as clear as looking at a pic(Ex. Being in the Twin Towers on 9/11, you remember every detail: sights, sounds, smells, etc)

78
Q

Working memory

A

a newer understanding of Atkinson & Shiffrin’s 2nd stage of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory & visual-spatial information, & of info retrieved from long-term memory

79
Q

Iconic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

(Remember: an icon is a picture on your computer, iconic means visual)

80
Q

Mood-congruent

A

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good / bad mood.

81
Q

State-dependent

A

what we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state, such as being happy / sad

82
Q

Context-dependent

A

putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime ur memory retrieval

83
Q

Algorithm

A

A methodical, logical rule / procedure: guarantees solving a problem but Takes time / effort

Contrasts w/ the usually speedier + more error prone use of heuristics

84
Q

Heuristic

A

Lets us act quickly/efficiently
Puts us at risk for errors
Simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements & solve problems efficiently

Usually speedier but more error-prone than algorithm

85
Q

Insight

A

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts w/ strategy-based solutions

Provides instant realization of solution but may not happen

86
Q

Creativity

A

Ability to produce new & valuable ideas

87
Q

Convergent thinking

A

Narrowing available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
Aptitude tests like SAT

88
Q

Divergent thinking

A

Expanding the # of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in diff directions
Creativity tests

89
Q

Confirmation bias

A

A tendency to search for info that supports our preconceptions & to ignore / distort contradicting evidence

lets us quickly recognize supporting evidence

Hinders recognition of contradictory evidence

90
Q

Fixation

A

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective
Obstacle to problem-solving

Focuses things on familiar solutions
Hinders creative problem solving

91
Q

Mental set

A

Tendency to approach a problem in 1 way, often a way that has been successful

92
Q

Framing

A

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions & judgments

Can influence others decisions but produce misleading results

93
Q

Intuition

A

Fast, automatic feelings & thoughts

Is based on our experiences, huge & adaptive but can lead us to overfeel & overthink

94
Q

Overconfidence

A

Overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs & judgements

Allows us to be happy/make decisions easily but puts us at risk for errors

95
Q

Belief perseverance

A

Ignoring evidence that proves our beliefs = wrong

Supports our enduring beliefs but closes our mind to new ideas

96
Q

Creativity

A

Ability to innovate new & valuable ideas

Produces new insights & products but may distract from structured, routine work

97
Q

Intelligence

A

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

98
Q

Intelligence Quotient IQ

A

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

99
Q

Factor analysis

A

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test

used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score

100
Q

Abstract versus verbal measures

A

IQ tests contain a diverse mixture of questions that tap abstract reasoning skills

they are intended to measure intellectual potential rather than factual knowledge, but they really reflect both

101
Q

Speed of processing

A

raw mental speed is linked w/ intelligence, ex: the IQ test is a timed test, this leads to the assumption that faster is smarter

102
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

our ability to reason speedily & abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Involves reasoning ability, memory capacity

103
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

our accumulated knowledge & verbal skills
tends to increase w/ age.

involves ability to apply acquired knowledge & problem solving skills

104
Q

Flynn Effect

A

rise in avg IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations

This may be because of a better environ/health & getting used to test questions

105
Q

Stereotype threat

A

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

106
Q

Savant Syndrome

A

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, ex: computation or drawing

107
Q

Discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence.

A

In Cameroon’s equatorial forest, intelligence may reflect understanding the medicinal qualities of local plants

108
Q

Charles Spearman

A

creator of “g-factor”, or general intelligence concept,
believed people often have special, outstanding abilities, or “s” as well.
used factor analysis to create his theory of “g” & “s”

109
Q

Howard Gardner

A

theory of multiple intelligences; 8 areas - often disputed

Verbal linguistic, mathematical-logical, musical, visual-spatial, existential, bodily/kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist

including the verbal & mathematical aptitudes assessed by standardized tests

110
Q

Robert Sternberg

A

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving/analytical, practical, and creative)

Robert Sternberg agrees w/ Gardner that there is more to success than traditional intelligence and that we have multiple intelligences BUT Sternberg proposes only 3

111
Q

Spearman’s general intelligence theory (g)

A

Summary: a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas

Strengths: diff abilities ex: verbal & spatial do have some tendency to correlate

BUTS: Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor

112
Q

Thurstone’s primary mental abilities theory

A

Our intelligence may be broken down into 7 factors

Strengths: a single g score is not as informative as scores for 7 primary mental abilities

BUTS: shows a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor

113
Q

Gardner’s multiple intelligences

A

Our abilities are best classified into 8/9 independent intelligences (includes broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts

Strengths: intelligence is more than js verbal & mathematical skills, other abilities are equally important to adaptability

BUTS: Should all our abilities be considered intelligence? Shouldn’t some be called less vital talents?

114
Q

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

A

Our intelligence is best classified into 3 areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, practical

Strengths:these 3 domains can be reliably measured

BUTS: 3 domains may be less independent than sternberg thought & may actually share underlying factor

115
Q

Emotional intelligence theory

A

Social intelligence is an important indicator of life success, emotional intelligence is a key aspect, consisting of perceiving, understanding, managing, & using emotions

Strengths: 4 components predict social success & emotional well-being

BUTS: does this stretch the concept of intelligence too far?

116
Q

Alfred Binet

A

pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help (French)

117
Q

Francis Galton

A

interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement

118
Q

Lewis Terman

A

revised Binet’s IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life.

Stanford-Binet IQ test. developed tests for US gov’t
Alpha and Beta Tests: IQ tests of WWII recruits.
Used to justify racist / ethnocentric immigration and education policies and forced sterilization

119
Q

David Wechsler

A

developer of WAIS and WISC intelligence tests. Adult scale.
More focus on non-verbal reasoning. Result gives patterns of strengths and weaknesses and places on normal curve

120
Q

Achievement vs. aptitude test

A

Achievement: exams covering what u learned

Aptitude: college entrance exam which seeks to predict ur ability to do college work

121
Q

Normal curve

A

If a graph is constructed of test-takers’ scores, the scores typically form a bell-shaped pattern

122
Q

What do the scores indicate? in the normal curve

A

For both the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales, a score indicates whether that person’s performance fell above or below the average

A performance higher than all but 2.5% of all scores earns an intelligence score of 130. A performance lower than 97.5% of all scores earns an intelligence score of 70.

123
Q

Gifted

A

a child with an IQ of 130+, these children are above avg in social & emotional maturity

Students, children, / youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, / in specific academic fields, & who need services & activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities

124
Q

Intellectual disability

A

low intellectual functioning as shown on test score performance that is in the lowest 3% of the general population, / abt 70 or below

Difficulty adapting to independence
as expressed in 3 areas, or skills: conceptual, social and practical

Down syndrome
Condition of mild-severe intellectual disability & associated physical disorders bc of extra chromosome 21

125
Q

Aphasia

A

Impairment of lang, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to broca’s area (speaking) / wernicke’s area (understanding) Broca’s area

Helps control lang expression - an area of the frontal lobe

Usually in left hemisphere - directs the muscle movements involved in speech

126
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Brain area - lang comprehension & expression usually in left temporal lobe

127
Q

Language

A

spoke, written / signed word & the way we combine them to communicate meaning

128
Q

Phenome

A

in a lang, the smallest distinctive sound unit

129
Q

Morpheme

A

In a lang, the smallest unit that carries meaning
may be a word / part of a word (ex: prefix)

130
Q

Grammar

A

A syst of rules that enables us to communicate w/ & understand others

131
Q

Noam Chomsky

A

language = natural gift apart from human cognition
Theorized build in predisposition to learn grammar rules ( universal grammar)

132
Q

Acquisition

A

the initial stage of the learning or conditioning process.

In this stage, some response is being associated w/ some stimulus to the point where we can say the organism (person, animal, etc.) has “acquired” the response

133
Q

Development:

A

process starting early in human life.
Babbling stage: beginning around 4 months, stage of speech development where an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at 1st unrelated to household lang

1 word stage: from abt 1-2 child speaks mostly in single words

2 word stage: beginning abt age 2, child speaks mostly in 2 word statements

Telegraphic speech
Child speaks like a telegram “go car” using mostly nouns & verbs

134
Q

Use of language:

A

a formal system of communication which involves the combination of words &/or symbols, whether written or spoken + some rules that govern them

135
Q

Linguistic determinism

A

Strong form of whorf’s hypothesis–that lang controls the way we think & interpret the world around us

136
Q

Linguistic influence

A

Weaker form of “linguistic relativity” the idea that lang affects thought (thinking & world view = relative to our cultural lang)

AP Psych (10 decks)

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