Unit 9: Social Psychology

Question 1

Attribution theory

Answer 1

(Fritz Heider): we can credit/blame(attribute) the behavior to the person’s internal stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribute) OR we can attribute it to the external situation (a situational attribute)

2 ways to our brain explains someone’s behavior = personality (dispositional) & circumstances (situational)

Ex: Jack eats an entire cake = 1. He has not eaten in days(situational) 2. Greedy & Glutinous (dispositional)

Question 2

Fundamental attribution error

Answer 2

tendency for observers when analyzing others’ behavior to UNDERESTIMATE the impact of the SITUATION & OVERESTIMATE the impact of personal DISPOSITION

ex: we attribute homelessness to a person’s personality (laziness) rather than situation

Question 3

Self-serving Bias

Answer 3

tendency to attribute ur good behaviors to ur own personality/disposition, but ur bad behaviors to ur situation

Ex: athlete plays good = bc own ability, plays bad = bc bad field/coach

Question 4

False consensus effect

Answer 4

Believing that everyone else shares your opinions, attributes, beliefs, behaviors & attitudes

Question 5

Confirmation Bias

Answer 5

Tendency to search / put more value on info that confirms own beliefs while disregarding opposing info

Question 6

Just-world Hypothesis

Answer 6

Tendency for ppl to believe the world = just/fair & ppl get what they deserve/deserve what they get

Question 7

Halo Effect

Answer 7

When u believe someone is good, u interpret all of their actions as good & fail to notice bad traits

Question 8

Attitudes

Answer 8

big reason why diff ppl respond diff in the same situation,

dictated by our beliefs/feelings that predispose us to respond to situations in a particular way

Question 9

Elaboration likelihood model

Answer 9

proposes 2 types of persuasion: central route persuasion & peripheral route persuasion

Question 10

Central route to persuasion

Answer 10

logical evidence & arguments trigger careful thinking/favorable thoughts of idea

Effective when ppl have time/energy to think/are interested in topic

Question 11

Peripheral route to persuasion

Answer 11

Occurs when ppl = influenced by incidental cues ex: speakers attractiveness that make them see idea favorably

More likely when ppl are less invested in issue

Question 12

Cognitive Dissonance

Answer 12

(Leon Festinger’): we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) &/or behaviors are inconsistent

when we become aware that our attitudes & actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

Ex: a person who smokes and enjoys the sensation, may also know that smoking cigarettes is correlated w/ lung cancer.
To relieve the dissonance, a person must either change the behavior (stop smoking) / change the thought (“I may die young, but at least I am enjoying myself today!”)

Question 13

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

Answer 13

Tendency for ppl who had agreed to a smaller request, to comply with a larger request later on

Question 14

Door-in-the-face phenomenon

Answer 14

When someone starts w/ a large request that a person turns down, they are likely to agree to a smaller request

Question 15

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Answer 15

an expectation that causes u to behave in ways that reinforce said expectation causing it to come true

ex: placebo effect. Because we expect an antidepressant to make us feel better, & we believe that others also expect the antidepressant to make us feel better, we may actually start to do things that relieve our depression

Question 16

Conformity

Answer 16

adjusting our behaviors/attitudes to mold to a group standard

Question 17

Informational social influence

Answer 17

we assume that the group is smarter than the individual brain; we conform because we want to be accurate and we accept others’ versions of reality

Question 18

Normative social influence

Answer 18

js wanting to fit in; we conform because we want to avoid rejection &/or gain approval

Question 19

Solomon Asch

Answer 19

Experiment on Conformity

Subjects were asked to look at an image & determine which line was longer

discovered that if just 1 person answered correctly, the subject was much more likely to answer correctly.

Question 20

Obedience

Answer 20

v similar to compliance, but requires that the person who’s giving orders/ instructions be in a position of authority

Question 21

Stanley Milgram

Answer 21

Experiment demonstrated how ppl will obey authority figures even when they disagree

Administered shocks after being told by “authority figures” even tho some ppl administering shock did not like doing so, they continued to do it after being commanded

found that obedience is highest when:

person giving the orders was close at hand and perceived to be an authority figure 👮

authority figure = associated w/ a prestigious institution

victim = depersonalized &/or at a distance

no role models for defiance

Question 22

Roles

Answer 22

In social situations, we often adopt a role, a social position that comes w/ a set of norms, & we adapt our behavior & attitudes to fit our role

Question 23

Philip Zimbardo

Answer 23

Stanford Prison Experiment

When randomly assigned to behave like prison guards OR prisoners, subjects adopted that role to the point where guards became abusive to prisoners & prisoners planned a rebellion against the guards (even though subjects were allowed to opt out at any time)

Although volunteers knew it was a research set up, eventually began to act more like their assigned role of prisoner or guard, took on roles & performed the behaviors expected in that role (norms)

Question 24

Bystander Effect

Answer 24

Tendency for a bystander to be less likely to help if others are present bc we assume someone else will help them

Question 25

Social facilitation

Answer 25

Improved performance on simple/well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Question 26

Social inhibition

Answer 26

Tendency to perform WORSE on difficult tasks in the presence of others

Question 27

Group polarization

Answer 27

Enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations thru discussion w/ in group Beliefs & attitudes we bring to group grow stronger when discussed w/ like-minded ppl

Question 28

Deindividuation

Answer 28

The loss of self-awareness & self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal & anonymity (take less responsibility for actions, internet trolling/cyberbullying, can result in prosocial actions)

Question 29

Diffusion of responsibility

Answer 29

phenomenon when there are multiple ppl present, each individual feels less of a responsibility for the situation

Question 30

Out-group Homogeneity Bias

Answer 30

We tend to perceive more individual differences between members of the ingroup & see everyone in the outgroup as the same

Question 31

In-group bias

Answer 31

tendency to favor our own group (the ingroup) rather than others (the outgroup) This “US vs. THEM” phenomenon kept us safe when we evolved, today = basis of prejudice & discrimination

Question 32

What is prejudice?

Answer 32

an unjustifiable (& usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members (ppl of a particular racial / ethnic group, gender, sexual orientation, / belief system) involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, & predisposition to discriminatory action

Question 33

What are the factors involved in prejudice?

Answer 33

negative emotions stereotypes predisposition to discriminate

Question 34

predisposition to discriminate

Answer 34

Acting in negative & unjustifiable ways toward members of the group

Question 35

Stereotypes

Answer 35

Generalized beliefs about a group of ppl

Question 36

negative emotions

Answer 36

Holding emotions such as hostility or fear

Question 37

Prejudice vs Discrimination

Answer 37

Prejudice = negative thought usually supported by stereotypes Discrimination = an action that causes us to treat different people differently, and even cause physical or emotional harm to others

Question 38

Biases

Answer 38

tendencies to favor one way of thinking over another stems from the mental concepts that we form thru out life, not inherently bad—help us think quickly & efficiently, develop heuristics, & prevent our consciousness from being clogged up with unnecessary decision-making

Question 39

Heuristic

Answer 39

a general rule based on our experience that we use to judge & make decisions (rule of thumb)

Question 40

Reciprocity norms

Answer 40

expectation that if I help you, you will help me

Question 41

Social norms

Answer 41

unwritten standards of what is socially acceptable in given situations

Question 42

Social traps

Answer 42

cause us to harm the well-being of society for our own interests a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Question 43

Prisoner’s dilemma

Answer 43

A social trap, situation where ppl must choose between an act that is beneficial to themselves but harmful to others OR an act that is moderately beneficial to all

Question 44

Conflict resolution

Answer 44

reduction of disagreement between individuals / groups, usually thru active strategies ex: appeasement, negotiation, & bargaining

Question 45

Superordinate goals

Answer 45

goals that BOTH parties want to achieve & that require cooperation

Question 46

Social Loafing

Answer 46

Tendency for ppl in a group to exert less effort (free-riders) than when held individually accountable

Question 47

Groupthink

Answer 47

a phenomenon that occurs when the desire for group consensus overrides people's common sense desire to present alternatives, critique a position, or express an unpopular opinion

Question 48

In-group/Out-group dynamics

Answer 48

Social identity = defined by the groups we associate w/ In group = “us” ppl that share a common identity Out group = “them” those perceived as diff or apart from ingroup

Question 49

Ethnocentrism

Answer 49

prejudicial belief that one’s culture is superior to all other cultures ppl tend to justify their culture’s social systems while judging others’ as "bad" or "wrong"

Question 50

Prejudice

Answer 50

unjustifiable & usually negative attitudes toward a group Often implicit most people don't detect they are being harmful & discriminatory

Question 51

Discrimination

Answer 51

an action that causes us to treat different people differently, & even cause physical/emotional harm to others.

Question 52

Scapegoat theory

Answer 52

maintains that our prejudices dictate who we blame when we are angry, & negative emotions exacerbate prejudice

Question 53

Stereotype

Answer 53

Generalized beliefs abt a group of ppl

Question 54

Mere-exposure effect

Answer 54

increased exposure to something or someone makes us like them more

Question 55

Social responsibility norm

Answer 55

we should help those needing our help even if the costs outweigh the benefits

Question 56

Altruism

Answer 56

unselfish concern for the welfare of others

Question 57

Aggression

Answer 57

any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm someone, whether done out of hostility/ a calculated means to an end

Question 58

Biological factors that lead to aggression

Answer 58

Genetic influences Neural influences Biochem influences

Question 59

Twin studies on genetic influences on aggression

Answer 59

If one identical twin admits to “having a violent temper” the other twin will often independently admit the same

Question 60

What psychological & social-cultural factors influence aggression?

Answer 60

Aversive events Reinforcement, modeling, self-control Media models

Question 61

Frustration-aggression model

Answer 61

Principle that frustration (the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger which can generate aggression Aversive stimuli: hot temperatures, physical pain, personal insults, foul odors, cigarette smoke, crowding can evoke hostility

Question 62

How does reinforcement lead to aggression?

Answer 62

In situations where experience has taught us that aggression pays, we are likely to act aggressively again

Question 63

How does modeling increase aggression?

Answer 63

Parents who act aggressively toward their children, screaming, yelling, / hitting them, may serve as models for their children of how to relate to others.

Question 64

What are three factors in attraction?

Answer 64

Proximity (Mere-exposure effect) Attractiveness Similarity (Similarity attracts; perceived dissimilarity does not + reward theory of attraction)

Question 65

Reward theory of attraction

Answer 65

says that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us

Question 66

Passionate love

Answer 66

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship mixes something new w/ something positive

Question 67

Passion

Answer 67

Seeing our partner stimulates blood flow to a brain region linked to craving and obsession

Question 68

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor theory of emotion

Answer 68

emotions have 2 ingredients: physical arousal and cognitive appraisal (consciously interpreting our arousal as attraction to that person)

Question 69

Companionate love

Answer 69

comes after passionate love phase, & involves deep affectionate attachment for someone else

Question 70

Availability Heuristic

Answer 70

ability to easily recall immediate examples from the mind abt something

Question 71

Hindsight bias

Answer 71

when you think you knew something all along after the outcome has occurred

Question 72

superordinate goals

Answer 72

shared goals that override differences among ppl & require their cooperation

Question 73

mirror-image perceptions

Answer 73

mutual views often held by conflicting ppl, as when each side sees itself as ethical & peaceful & views other side as evil & aggressive

Question 74

other-race effect/cross-race effect

Answer 74

tendency to recall faces of one's race more accurately than faces of other races

Question 75

social exchange theory

Answer 75

our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim is to maximize benefits & minimize costs

Question 76

self-disclosure

Answer 76

revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

Question 77

equity

Answer 77

a condition where ppl receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give