W2 notes

Question 1

objectivity

Answer 1

Science relies on objectivity, meaning that conclusions are based on facts, without influence from personal emotions or biases

Question 2

subjectivity

Answer 2

subjectivity, means that conclusions reflect personal points of view

Question 3

Scientists strive to be _______, but any observation by a human is, by definition, _________

Answer 3

objective; subjective

Question 4

confirmation bias

Answer 4

The difference in attention and memory is called confirmation bias
It represents one reason why objective and systematic observation are important in scientific inquiries

Question 5

critical thinking

Answer 5

Critical thinking or the ability to think clearly, rationally, and independently, is one of the foundation of scientific reasoning
Involves the development of habits, skills and mindsets that can be continually improved with practice

Question 6

theories

Answer 6

Science seeks to develop theories, which are sets of facts and relationships between facts that can be used to explain and predict phenomena

Question 7

hypothesis

Answer 7

A hypothesis is a type of inference, or an educated guess, based on prior evidence and logical possibilities
A good hypothesis links concrete variables based on your theory and makes specific predictions
Scientists can never “prove” that a hypothesis is true because some future experiment, possibly using new tech not currently available, might show the hypothesis to be false

Question 8

replication

Answer 8

results often undergo replication, which means that other scientists independently attempt to reproduce the results of the study in question
If the data are replicated, they will be accepted quickly

Question 9

descriptive methods

Answer 9

Descriptive methods including surveys, case studies and observations, provide a good starting place for a new research question

Question 10

Correlational methods

Answer 10

Correlational methods help psychologists see how 2 variables of interest, like the number of hours spent on social media platforms and symptoms of depression, relate to each other

Question 11

constructs

Answer 11

Constructs are internal attributes that cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing and explaining behaviour

Question 12

Operationalization

Answer 12

Operationalization is the process of taking an abstract construct and defining it in a way that’s concrete

Question 13

descriptive methods

Answer 13

Descriptive methods allow a researcher to make careful systematic, real world observations
Illuminates associations between variables and establishes prevalence rates

Question 14

case study

Answer 14

Case study provides an in-depth analysis of the behaviour of one person or a small number of people

Question 15

naturalistic observation

Answer 15

Naturalistic observation is the in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting
E.g. studying chimps in their habitat
Can sometimes be problematic as people change their behaviours when they know their behaviour is being observed

Question 16

surveys

Answer 16

Surveys allow us to ask large numbers of people questions about attitudes and behaviour

Question 17

sample

Answer 17

One of the requirements for a good survey is the use of an appropriate sample, or subset of a population being studied

Question 18

population

Answer 18

The population consists of the entire group from which a sample is taken

Question 19

correlations

Answer 19

Correlations measure the direction and strength of the relationship between 2 variables, or factors that have values that can change
E.g. a person’s height and weight

Question 20

measure

Answer 20

A measure answers the simple question of “how much” of a variable we have observed

Question 21

positive correlation

Answer 21

Positive correlation: height and weight usually show this type of relationship
E.g. in most cases, people who are taller weigh more than people who are shorter.

Question 22

negative correlation

Answer 22

Negative correlation: high values of one variable are associated with low values of another
For example, high levels of alcohol consumption among postsecondary students are usually associated with low GPAs.

Question 23

zero correlation

Answer 23

Zero correlation, in which the two variables have no systematic relationship with each other
When variables have a zero correlation, knowing the value of one variable does not tell us anything about the value of the other
For example, emergency room and law enforcement personnel are often convinced that they are busier with emergencies and crime on nights with a full moon

Question 24

independent variable

Answer 24

The variable controlled and manipulated by an experimenter is known as the independent variable

Question 25

dependent variable

Answer 25

A dependent variable is a measure used to assess the effects of the manipulation of the independent variable, to tell us “what will happen” as a result of the independent variable

Question 26

control group

Answer 26

The control group will receive all experimental procedures except exposure to the independent variable

Question 27

experimental groups

Answer 27

The experimental groups experience different values of the independent variable

Question 28

random assignment

Answer 28

To prevent individual differences from masking or distorting the effects of our independent variable, we randomly assign participants to experimental or control groups Random assignment means that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group in an experiment

Question 29

confounding variables

Answer 29

Individual differences among participants are an example of confounding variables, or variables that are irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested and can alter or distort our conclusions

Question 30

meta-analysis

Answer 30

Conducting a meta-analysis, or a statistical analysis often provides a clearer picture than do single experiments observed in isolation

Question 31

publication bias

Answer 31

Published studies available to researchers conducting a meta-analysis might be subject to publication bias, or the possibility that they are not representative of all the work done on a particular problem

Question 32

double-blind procedure

Answer 32

The gold standard for demonstrating the objective effects of any substance, whether a food additive, medication, or recreational drug is the double-blind procedure -this procedure requires a placebo

Question 33

placebo

Answer 33

This procedure requires a placebo, an inactive substance that cannot be distinguished from a real, active substance

Question 34

cross-sectional study

Answer 34

To do a cross-sectional study, we might gather groups of people of varying ages and assess for example, both their exposure to violent video games and their levels of physical aggression The cross-sectional method introduces what we refer to as cohort effects, or the generational effects of having been born at a particular point in history

Question 35

longitudinal study

Answer 35

-group of individuals is observed for a long period Sometimes participants drop out of the study since it’s too long or lack of incentive

Question 36

mixed longitudinal design

Answer 36

The mixed longitudinal design, combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal methods Faster and less expensive than the longitudinal method and avoids some of the cohort effects of the pure cross-sectional method

Question 37

valid measure

Answer 37

Valid measure actually measures what it’s supposed to measure

Question 38

reliability

Answer 38

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure Good measures show high interrater reliability, or consistency in the interpretation of a measure across different observers

Question 39

inter-method reliability

Answer 39

Inter-method reliability describes the positive correlation of several approaches to measure a feature in an individual

Question 40

internal consistency

Answer 40

Internal consistency results from measures within a single test that positively correlate with one another

Question 41

validity

Answer 41

Validity means that a measure leads to correct conclusions or evaluates the concept that it is designed to do

Question 42

reliability vs validity

Answer 42

You can obtain a consistent result (reliability) that lacks meaning (validity), but a measure can’t be valid without also being reliable

Question 43

descriptive statistics

Answer 43

Descriptive statistics helps us organize individual bits of data into meaningful patterns and summaries

Question 44

standard variation

Answer 44

The traditional way to look at the variance of scores is to use a measure known as the standard deviation, which tells us how tightly clustered around the mean a group of scores is

Question 45

normal distribution

Answer 45

Normal distribution is symmetrical, has equal numbers of scores above and below the mean

Question 46

correlation coefficients

Answer 46

Correlation coefficients can range from -1.00 to +1.00. When the score is either of the 2, the correlation is perfect

Question 47

inferential statistics

Answer 47

Inferential statistics permit us to draw inferences or conclusions from data

Question 48

null hypothesis

Answer 48

The default position, stating that there is no real difference between 2 measures, is known as the null hypothesis Rejecting the null, suggests that alternative hypotheses should be explored and tested

Question 49

statistical significance

Answer 49

Statistical significance is a standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance

Question 50

informed consent

Answer 50

Researchers must provide prospective participants with an informed consent form, which provides details about the purpose of the study and what types of procedures will occur

Question 51

3 R's of animal research

Answer 51

Replacement refers to research methods that avoid or replace the use of animals in an area of research where they would have been used Reduction refers to any strategy that will result in fewer animals being used Refinement refers to the modification of animal care or experiment procedures to minimize pain and distress

Question 52

field experiments

Answer 52

Field experiments involve the manipulation of independent variables and measuring of dependent variables, but the experiments are conducted “in the field” (e.g. residential area)