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Leah URO > Week 1 > Flashcards

Week 1 Flashcards

1
Q

How are the bladder & rectum formed

A

growth of urorectal septum divides cloaca into bladder & rectum

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2
Q

What is the mesoderm and what are its divisions

A

Everything that is not skin or lining of gut

divisions:
- paraxial mesoderm
- intermediate mesoderm
- lateral plate mesoderm

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3
Q

How do nephros develop

A

intermediate mesoderm develops 3 bilaterally symmetrical sections from cranial to caudal, connected to coelomic cavity:
1. Pronephros
2. Mesonephros
3. Metanephros

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4
Q

Label the nephros diagram

A
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5
Q

Describe fish kidney development

A

Pronephros replaced by mesonephros

Fusion of mesonephros
- fish: fuse to make single kidney
- amphibians: caudal poles fuse to create V or Y shape

Mesonephros has reproductive, endocrine & excretory elements

No metanephros

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6
Q

describe kidney development in reptiles, birds & mammals

A
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7
Q

Compare mesonephros to metanephros

A
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8
Q

Where do gonads form from

A

From regressing mesonephros

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9
Q

How are kidneys formed

A
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10
Q

Label the diagram

A
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11
Q

Label the diagram

A
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12
Q

What are the red lines

A

2 layers of peritoneal cells

Space between layers called vaginal cavity (continuous with peritoneum)

Peritoneal fluid between layers

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13
Q

Label the structures

A
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14
Q

What is the tunica albuginea made of

A

connective tissue, smooth muscle

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15
Q

What is the visceral vaginal tunic made of

A

peritoneum, visceral layer

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16
Q

Label the diagram of testis histology

A
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17
Q

Label the testis histology

A
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18
Q

Describe sperm cell development

A

Early cells sit at basement membrane (spermatogonia)

Spermatogonia divide by mitosis and form primary spermatocyte

Then undergo meiosis to form haploid cells and differentiate and elongate into sperm

Sperm sits in Sertoli cells on basement membrane which stretch into lumen of tubule

Sertoli cells help formation of sperm (nurse germ cells)

Germ cells squeeze between sertoli cells & go closer and closer to lumen as they develop

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19
Q

What can you see on this testes ultrasound

A
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20
Q

Label the image

A
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21
Q

What is the function on the epididymis

A

Transport spermatozoa
resorption of fluids
secretion of proteins

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22
Q

What is epididymal transit time

A

Time taken for spermatozoa to travel from proximal head to distal tail of epididymis

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23
Q

What is the ductus deferens

A

Connects epididymis (tail) to pelvic urethra
very strong smooth muscle wall for propulsion of spermatozoa

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24
Q

Label the diagram

Ignore13
A
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25
Q

Label the diagram of the spermatic cord

A
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26
Q

Label the diagram of spermatic cord

A
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27
Q

What are the functions of the pampiniform plexus

A

Venules wrap around arteries so heat is transmitted into venous blood to cool testes

By the time artery arrives at testes its cooler

Testosterone passes into venous blood and then back into artery to travel to testes

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28
Q

What muscles play a role in testes temperature control

A
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29
Q

Label the blood supply to the testes

A
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30
Q

What are the male accessory reproductive glands and what do they produce

A
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31
Q

Label the diagram

A
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32
Q

What is the colliculus seminalis

A

Opening of ejaculatory ducts
common duct of ampulla & vesicular gland

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33
Q

Fill in the accessory gland table

A
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34
Q

Where are the urethralis m. & bulbospongiosus m. & what is their function

A

Urethralis muscle: surrounds pelvic urethra
Bulbospongiosis muscle: surrounds bulbourethral glands & penile urethra

Both striated muscles important for transport of semen through urethra

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35
Q

Label the 3 parts of the penis

A
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36
Q

What are these and what are their functions

A
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37
Q

Describe the dog penis erectile tissue

A
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38
Q

What are the 2 types of penis

A

Fibroelastic:
- ruminants, pigs
- fibroelastic tissue in corpus cavernosum
little increase in length & girth during erection

Musculocavernous:
- stallion, dog
More muscular, less connective tissue in CC
significant increase in length & girth during erection

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39
Q

Label the glans penis

A
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40
Q

label the structures

A
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41
Q

Label the pelvic diaphragm diagram

A
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42
Q

What are perineal hernias

A

Occur when muscles of pelvic diaphragm fail to support rectal wall

Most often occuring in male intact dogs

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43
Q

Identify A, Ai, B and the structures pointed at

A
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44
Q

Identify the structures

A
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45
Q

What blood vessels supply the female genital organs

A

Ovarian artery
Uterine artery
Vaginal artery
Internal pudendal artery

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46
Q

In the male, urethra, accessory glands & penis are all supplied by which artery

A

Branch of internal pudendal artery

Divides into deep & dorsal penile arteries at level of ischiadic arch

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47
Q

Which artery does the testicular artery branch from

A

Abdominal aorta

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48
Q

Label the diagram

A
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49
Q

Label the diagram

A
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50
Q

When does testes descent occur across species

A
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51
Q

Describe testicular descent

A
  1. testes lie in retroperitoneal position & are attached caudally to ligamentous gubernaculum
  2. As fetus grows, testes pushed against peritoneum causing peritoneal cells to wrap around gubernaculum (allows vaginal process to form)
  3. Gubernaculum passes through inguinal ring (transabdominal phase)
  4. Then undergoes rapid period of expansion, pulling testes down towards base of scrotum (inguinal-scrotal phase)
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52
Q

What is puberty and what are the requirements

A
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53
Q

Describe LH in male hypothalamus

A

Small LH surges every 2-6 hours followed by testosterone

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54
Q

Describe LH in female hypothalamus

A

High amplitude preovulatory episodes once every 20 days

Basal low amplitude pulsatile episodes between surges

Females have surge centre

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55
Q

What limits puberty onset in females

A

Pre-puberty GnRH pulses are low

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56
Q

What triggers puberty onset in females

A

Increased oestradiol levels stop inhibition at tonic centre

Surge centre stimulated which leads to ovulation & puberty

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57
Q

Why is amount of fat & body maturation important in female puberty

A
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58
Q

Describe role of Kisspeptin neurones in puberty onset

A
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59
Q

What are some external & social factors that affect female puberty

A
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60
Q

What are some strategies used to advance or delay puberty

A
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61
Q

Fill in the table with ages of puberty

A
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62
Q

What does meiosis produce

A

Haploid cells

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63
Q

What are the phases of mitosis

A
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64
Q

In which meiotic division does DNA replication occur

A

1st meiotic division

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65
Q

Briefly state what happens in meiosis

A
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66
Q

What happens in prophase 1

A

nucleolus shrinks
centrioles migrate to opposite poles
spindle forms (green)
nucleus & chromatin stained blue
chromosomes condense
- homologous chromosomes undergo synapsis & lie together to form bivalent structure
- homologous chromosomes interlink
- chiasmata form

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67
Q

What are the 5 stages of prophase 1

A
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67
Q

What are these

A

chiasmata

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68
Q

What happens in metaphase 1

A

nuclear envelope disappears
homologous chromosomes move to equator of spindle
Centromeres of each bivalent chromosome orientate to opposite poles

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68
Q

What happens in anaphase 1

A

homologous chromosomes separate & migrate to opposite poles of spindle
one chromosome with 2 chromatids arrives at each pole

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69
Q

What happens in telophase 1

A

cytoplasmic division starts
spindle breaks down
nuclear envelope & nucleoli form

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70
Q

What happens in the 2nd meiotic division

A
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71
Q

Fill in the blanks

A
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72
Q

Describe spermatogenesis

A
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73
Q

Fill in the blanks

A
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74
Q

Describe oogenesis

A
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75
Q

What are alleles

A

alternative version of same gene (same function but with small difference in gene sequence)

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76
Q

What are sources of genetic variation

A
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77
Q

What is independent assortment of chromosomes

A
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78
Q

What is X chromosome inactivation

A

females have mosaic of 2 types of cells: half from active X of father & half from active X of mother

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79
Q

what are somatic vs germ line mutations

A
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80
Q

What is non-disjunction

A
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81
Q

What is aneuploidy

A
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82
Q

What are the 2 types of nondisjunction

A
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83
Q

What is a monosomic zygote

A

Only has 1 copy of particular chromosome

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84
Q

What is a trisomic zygote

A

Has 3 copies of particular chromosome

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85
Q

what type of changes can a breakage of chromosome lead to

A
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86
Q

What is happening in each

A
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87
Q

What is Klinefelter syndrome

A

result of an extra chromosome in male producing XXY individuals

XXY tortoise-shell cats are infertile

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88
Q

What is monosomy X

A

Also known as Turner syndrome
Produces X0 females who are sterile

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89
Q

What does the mesonephros do before urinary development

A

Temporary embryonic kidney

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90
Q

Describe male gonad early development

A
  1. Pair of gonadal ridges form on posterior abdominal wall adjacent to mesonephros
  2. Primordial germ cells from yolk sac endoderm migrate to ridges
  3. SRY gene on Y chromosome influences germ cells to differentiate into testicular primordia
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91
Q

Describe female gonad early development

A
  1. Pair of gonadal ridges form on posterior abdominal wall adjacent to mesonephros
  2. Primordial germ cells from yolk sac endoderm migrate to ridges
    Extra pair of duct forms from grooves, lateral to the nephros
  3. Grooves sink into mesoderm of abd wall to become paramesonephric ducts (they also start to form in males but regress)
  4. PMN ducts elongate cranially & caudally
  5. Ducts fuse or not depending on species and form L & R uterine horns
  6. They remain open at cranial ends to form ampullae of oviducts
  7. caudal ends form bud from endoderm of cloaca which forms vagina & cervix
  8. Ovaries migrate caudally to post renal position
  9. Fused region of PMN ducts becomes body of uterus
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92
Q

What do mesonephric tubules form in males

A

efferent ducts

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93
Q

What does the mesonephric duct form in males

A

epididymis & ductus deferens

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94
Q

What happens to mesonephric ducts in females

A

regress in females but can leave cystic remnants

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95
Q

What happens to paramesonephric ducts in males & females

A

Degenerate in male but persist in females

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96
Q

What us the trigone of the bladder

A
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97
Q

Describe testicular development

A
  1. undifferentiated sex cords align themselves against rete tubules
  2. rete tubules & mesonephric ducts interconnect to provide continuity with sex cords that will become seminiferous tubules
  3. epithelial cords become seminiferous tubules & mesonephric duct is gradually transformed into epididymis & ductus deferens
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98
Q

What are rete tubules

A

Network of tiny ducts that ultimately connect seminiferous tubules to efferent ducts

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99
Q

Describe ovarian development

A
  1. paramesonephric & mesonephric ducts still intact
  2. paramesonephric duct continues to develop
  3. primitive follicles appear at periphery of ovary & mesonephric ducts & tubules regress while paramesonephric ducts develop
  4. distinct clusters of follicles seen. sex cords gone.
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100
Q

Where is the adrenal cortex derived from

A

some of the regressing mesonephric tubules

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101
Q

where is the adrenal medulla derived from

A

neural crest cells which migrate into centre of adrenal cortex

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102
Q

What is an ectopic ureter

A

1 or both ureters enter urethra/vagina downstream of bladder sphincter

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103
Q

What is freemartinism

A
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104
Q

What are the signs of a freemartin calf

A
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105
Q

What is the order in which sperm travels through male genital tract

A
  1. seminiferous tubules
  2. straight tubules
  3. rete testis
  4. efferent ductules
  5. epididymis head
  6. epididymis body
  7. epididymis tail
  8. deferent duct
  9. ejaculatory duct
  10. urethra
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106
Q

What is the origin of testicular arteries

A

aorta

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107
Q

Why do males have a vaginal cavity

A

It contains peritoneal fluid to lubricate testes for movement

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108
Q

What is the function of the gubernaculum

A

Guide testes in their decent from initial abdominal position down into inguinal canal

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109
Q

What are the 4 muscles of the male reproductive tract and what is their function

A
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110
Q

Label the diagram

A
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111
Q

Label the diagram

A
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112
Q

Label the sperm diagram

A
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113
Q

Label the male gonad

A
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114
Q

Label the diagram

A
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115
Q

Label the diagram

A
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116
Q

Label the diagram

A
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117
Q

Where is GnRH produced

A

hypothalamus

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118
Q

Where are FSH, LH, Prolactin & oxytocin produced

A

Pituitary
FSH, LH & prolactin anterior
oxytocin posterior

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119
Q

What hormones does the ovary produce

A

Oestrogens, progesterone, inhibin, oxytocin, relaxin & some testosterone

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120
Q

What hormones do the testes produce

A

Testosterone & other androgens, inhibin, oestrogen

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121
Q

What hormones do the uterus & placenta produce

A

Prostaglandin F2a, progesterone, oestrogen, eCG & hCG

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122
Q

Fill in the HPG axis

A
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123
Q

Describe the hypothalamo-hypophyseal-portal system

A
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124
Q

Describe the male HPT axis

A
  1. male hypothalamus releases frequent intermittent bursts of GnRH
  2. causes pulse of FSH & LH
  3. pulse of LH causes pulse of testosterone
  4. sertoli cells release inhibin which inhibits FSH
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125
Q

Fill in the male HPT axis

A
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126
Q

What happens in a follicle

A

Oocyte develops
Oestradiol secretion: receptivity & conception

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127
Q

What does the corpus luteum release

A

Progesterone for pregnancy support

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128
Q

In what groups of hypothalamic neurons is GnRH produced in females

A

Surge centre & tonic centre

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129
Q

What is the difference between GnRH secretion in surge vs tonic centre

A
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130
Q

What happens during the follicular phase

A
  1. FSH stimulates follicle to grow & produce oestradiol
  2. for most of follicular phase E2 is low which has negative feedback role
  3. approaching ovulation there is critical switch & rising E2 become positive leading to LH surge & ovulation
  4. inhibin inhibits FSH
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131
Q

What happens during the luteal phase

A

Luteal P4 exerts negative feedback on GnRH neurons so there is no more oestrus

Stimulates lining of uterus to be secretory & support early pregnancy
Stimulates mammary gland

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132
Q

What happens during luteolysis

A

CL undergoes structural & function regression
P4 decreases which removes negative feedback

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133
Q

What is spermatogenesis

A
134
Q

What are the 3 phases of spermatogenesis

A
  1. proliferation
    - mitotic divisions of spermatogonia. large number of B spermatogonia produced
  2. meiosis
    - crossing over for genetic heterogeneity. haploid spermatids produced
  3. differentiation
    - formation of cell capable of fertilisation
135
Q

What happens in spermatogenesis

A
  1. A-spermatogonia undergo mitotic divisions from A1 to A4
  2. I-spermatogonia undergo mitotic divisions to form B spermatogonia
  3. B-spermatogonia undergo mitotic division to primary spermatocytes
    4.primary spermatocytes double their DNA in preparation of first meiotic division
  4. secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis 2 to produce haploid spermatids
  5. spermatids differentiate into mature sperm cells with tails sticking into lumen
136
Q

How is synchrony assured in spermatogenesis

A

intercellular bridges between groups of cells so they divide in groups

137
Q

are you more likely to see a primary or secondary spermatocyte

A

Primary because secondary spermatocytes are short lived

138
Q

What are the phases of spermatogenesis differentiation

A
  1. golgi phase
  2. cap phase
  3. acrosomal phase
  4. maturation phase
139
Q

Describe the stages of spermatid differentiation

A
  1. golgi phase
    - vesicles of Golgi fuse to form acrosomic vesicle
    - centrioles move to base of nucleus
  2. cap phase
    - acrosome forms cap over spermatid nucleus
    - golgi apparatus migrates & dissapears
    - primitive flagellum forms
  3. acrosomal phase
    - acrosome spreads & nucleus elongates
    - manchette tubules formed
    Neck & annulus formed
  4. maturation phase
    - manchette forms postnuclear cap
    - mitochondria form middle piece
140
Q

What are the features of spermatozoa

A
141
Q

What is the cycle of seminiferous epithelium

A

Progression through complete series of stages at 1 location along a seminiferous tubule

Cycle duration varies across species

Sperm is only released into lumen at cross-section 8

142
Q

Define stage, stage duration, cycle & cycle duration regarding spermatogenesis

A
143
Q

What is spermatogenesis dependent on

A

Production of:
- GnRH secretion from hypothalamus
- FSH & LH from anterior pituitary
- Testosterone & oestrogen from gonad

144
Q

What are the roles of LH & FSH in spermatogenesis

A

LH:
- binds to receptors on Leydig cells
Leydig cells produce testosterone
FSH:
- bind to receptors on Sertoli cells to enable function
* converting testosterone to oestradiol
* produce inhibin

145
Q

What is sex determination

A

Developmental decision that directs bipotential gonad to develop as a testis or ovary

146
Q

What is the difference between genotype & phenotype

A

Genotype is genetic makeup of an individual
Phenotype refers to observable physical traits

147
Q

Where do germ cells migrate from

A

Yolk sac (endodermal layer)

148
Q

What are the 3 levels of sexual dimorphism

A
149
Q

Describe the sexual differentiation of the brain

A
150
Q

Describe how XY germ cells become sperm

A
  1. XY germ cells undergo mitosis during migration
  2. growth arrested when they reach gonad & remain in testis in G0 phase until after birth
    - induced by meiosis inhibitory factor secreted by Sertoli or myoid cells
  3. resume cell cycle after birth & form haploid spermatozoa
  4. Sertoli cells nurture germ cells
  5. spermatogenesis complete at puberty under influence of FSH & LH
151
Q

Describe how XX germ cells become oocytes

A
  1. XX germ cells undergo mitosis as they migrate to genital ridge & enter oocyte
  2. undergo initial stages of 1st meiotic division & become arrested at prophase 1 by birth
  3. become surrounded by single layer of granulosa cells to form primordial follicles
  4. follicle development continues but oocytes remain arrested until they are stimulated by FSH & LH at puberty
152
Q

Describe the function of testosterone, LH, FSH, GnRH & inhibin in males

A

Testosterone: development & maturation of sperm cells
LH: stimulate testosterone production
FSH: promote development of sperm cells
GnRH: stimulate release of LH & FSH
Inhibin: inhibit release of FSH from pituitary gland to regulate spermatogenesis

153
Q

what is stallion-like behaviour

A

Mate guarding, vocalisation, courtship displays (e.g. prancing), challenging other males

154
Q

What is flehmen

A

Curl back upper lip & expose front teeth to inhale scents associated with reproductive & social information

Allows animal to use vomeronasal organ in roof of mouth to detect pheromones

155
Q

What is the difference between stallion-like behaviour & aggression

A

Not all stallion-like behaviours are aggressive & actions are a reproductive response whereas aggression is more general

156
Q

When are stallions normally gelded

A

between 6 months & 2 years of age

157
Q

What behaviour would be expected of a castrated male in presence of female in oestrus?

A

Less focused on mating behaviours & calmer/more manageable as they no longer experience hormonal fluctuations associated with testosterone

158
Q

Fill in the testicular morphology table

A
159
Q

Label the sperm

A
160
Q

Label the diagram

A
161
Q

What is the role of seminal plasma in female tract

A

Not required for fertilisation
Helps sperm survive in female tract
Transport medium
Nutritional support
Buffering capacity (cervix acidic)

162
Q

Where is semen deposited in cattle

A
163
Q

Where is semen deposited in pig

A
164
Q

Fill in the semen deposition table

A
165
Q

Describe the journey of sperm through female tract

A
166
Q

What happens to semen at copulation

A

Semen coagulation to prevent further mating (domestic animals) or vaginal plug (rodents)
Loss of spermatozoa because presence of sperm induces immune reaction (foreign body)

167
Q

How does sperm move

A

straight line
head rotates left & right
flagella movement
Transport assisted by female tract contractions

168
Q

How does flagella movement work

A
  1. In central axoneme there are pairs of outer microtubules
  2. Dyneins bind to each doublet & extend their motor domains
  3. Outer doublet slides over each other causing bending of axoneme
  4. and thus flagella movement
169
Q

What is wrong with these

A
170
Q

Describe sperm transport through cervix

A

Major barrier

171
Q

How do sperm interact with uterine tube

A

only 1-10% reach uterine tube

Sperm bind to epithelial cells
- renders them immotile
- prolongs their lifespan

Sperm released around ovulation
- swim towards ampulla region where fertilisation occurs

172
Q

What are the dog ejaculate fractions

A

3 fractions
1st & 3rd seminal fluid
2nd sperm-rich

173
Q

Describe sperm capacitation

A
  1. removal of decapacitation factors
  2. membrane destabilisation induced by ion movement
  3. detachment from oviductal epithelium
  4. transient hyperactivity
    - exposure of surface proteins (ZP proteins) that can bind to oocyte
    - enables acrosome reaction
174
Q

Label the oocyte

A
175
Q

What are the 3 glycoproteins in zona pellucida

A

ZP1 - minor component
ZP2 - structural component
ZP3 - receptos

176
Q

What is the acrosome reaction in sperm

A

Occurs after capacitation
1. Initiated by sperm binding to ZP
2. Acrosomal hydrolytic enzymes released
- digest ZP & localised small hole so nucleus of sperm can be released into oocyte
3. Spermatozoa head penetrates ZP
- requires hyper-activation of flagellum
4. fusion of plasma membranes

177
Q

How does sperm activate oocyte

A
178
Q

In females what are the germ cell producing organs

A

ovary

179
Q

In females what are the conducting organs

A

uterine body & uterus (allow germ cell transport)

180
Q

In females what organ provides space for development

A

uterus

181
Q

In females what are the copulatory organs

A

vagina & vestibule

182
Q

Label the diagram

A
183
Q

Describe equine ovary morphology

A

Large (up to 10cm)
Has ovarian fossa with germinal epithelium (cortex is in this area only)
- Follicles only rupture here
Vascular zone is peripheral
Corpus Luteum up to 50mm

184
Q

Label the tubular structure of female reproductive tract

A
185
Q

What are the 3 regions of the uterine tube

A

Infundibulum
- covered with fimbriae (long finger like folds that captures ooctye)
ampulla
- near ovary
isthmus
- next to uterus

186
Q

Label the uterine tube

A
187
Q

What are the functions of the uterine tube

A

Sperm transport & storage
catching oocyte
oocyte transport
environment for fertilisation

188
Q

What is the difference between mare & bitch uterine tube

A
189
Q

Label

A

Lumen may house sperm or early embryo

endometrium becomes part of placenta

190
Q

What are the functions of the uterus

A

Sperm storage/transport
Production of prostaglandin F2a to control cyclical activity
Environment for early embryo
Contribution to placenta
Parturition

191
Q

Label the uterus

A
192
Q

What are the types of uteri

A
193
Q

Label the cow uterus & describe it

A

Uterine horns curved
Uterine body short
pregnancy often in 1 horn

194
Q

Label the sow uterus and describe it

A

Long uterine horns
Coiled in caudal direction
Small uterine body

195
Q

Describe the mare ovary

A

Ovaries sub-lumbar & dorsal in position
Uterine horns straight
Uterine body long

196
Q

Describe the bitch reproductive tract

A

Ovaries sub-lumbar
Ovaries very cranial (near kidneys)
Uterine horns short & straight
Uterine body short

197
Q

Describe the microstructure of uterine tissue

A
198
Q

What are these and what is their function

A

Endometrial folds
Contribute to maternal placenta

199
Q

Label the diagram

A
200
Q

Describe the function of the cervix

A
201
Q

Describe cervical rings/folds in different species

A

Single: bitch, queen
Multiple: cow, ewe, sow

202
Q

Describe the variable degree of patency of the cervix (important for passing catheters into uterus

A

Interlocking folds: cow, ewe
Spiral interlocking folds: sow
Loosely apposed folds: mare

203
Q

What is the cervical seal of pregnancy

A
204
Q

Describe the vagina subdivisions

A
205
Q

What are the functions of the vagina

A

copulation
parturition
micturition

206
Q

What is the fornix vagina

A

In cow, mare & bitch
cervix protrudes into cranial vagina forming crypt or pocket
spermatozoa deposited here during natural service

207
Q

Label the diagram

ignore8&13
A

arrow is urethral orifice

208
Q

where does the vagina originate from

A

paramesonephric ducts

209
Q

where does the vestibule form from

A

urogenital sinus

210
Q

Label the clitoris

A
211
Q

What is the function of the broad ligament

A

Support & suspend reproductive tract
Houses vascular supply, lymphatic drainage & nerves

212
Q

What are the components of the broad ligament

A
213
Q

Where is the broad ligament

A
214
Q

Label the ligaments

A
215
Q

Describe the round ligament of the uterus

A
216
Q

Label the diagram (repro tract)

A
217
Q

Label the 3 arteries

A
218
Q

Describe the uterine artery

A
219
Q

What is the vaginal artery a branch of

A

Internal iliac artery

220
Q

Describe the ovarian artery

A
221
Q

Describe the utero-ovarian counter-current transport system

A
222
Q

What is the innervation of the ovary

A

sympathetic from mesenteric plexus

223
Q

What is the innervation of the uterus, cervix & vagina

A

parasympathetic & sympathetic from pelvic plexus

224
Q

Label the diagram

A
225
Q

Define artificial insemination

A

Deliberate introduction of a sperm/semen sample into cervix or uterine cavity by catheter

226
Q

Why use AI

A
227
Q

How is ejaculate for AI collected

A
228
Q

Why are semen examinations done

A
229
Q

What do semen examinations assess

A
230
Q

How do you use a haemocytometer

A

Place sperm in counting chamber
Only count 5 squares for estimate
Only count sperm on 2 sides of box to account for other boxes around

231
Q

How do you count sperm with a hemocytometer

A
  1. find middle blue square containing more squares
  2. count sperm in 5 yellow boxes
  3. multiply by 5 to get estimate of total number in blue square
  4. multiply by 10,000
  5. multiply by dilution factor if semen has been diluted
  6. sperm count will be N (sperm in blue square) x10^4 = total number of sperm per ml of semen
232
Q

Work out the sperm concentration (hemocytometer)

A

192x10^6 sperm/ml

233
Q

Why would you use Nigrosine & Eosin stain to assess sperm

A

Visualise sperm easier
Assess membrane integrity/function

234
Q

Describe each sperm cell

A
235
Q

Name the abnormalities and why is 1 circled

A
236
Q

What are the sperm preservation options

A

*freeze-thawing can cause sperm damage

237
Q

What do extender solutions aim to do in sperm storage

A
238
Q

What factors are important in semen preservation

A
239
Q

What is the process of using cryopreserves for freeze thawing of sperm

A
240
Q

Describe sperm collection & storage in the bull

A
241
Q

Describe sperm storage in ram

A
242
Q

Describe sperm storage in boar

A
243
Q

Describe sperm storage in stallion

A
244
Q

Describe sperm storage in the dog

A
245
Q

Outline principle of semen sexing

A

Sexing based on separation of sperm based on their DNA content (X chromosomes have more DNA than Y)
1. sperm labeled with DNA florescent dye & sorting by flow cytometry
2. droplets containing spermatozoa emitting fluorescent signal acquire electrical charge
3. sperm into collection tubes by electromagnetic field

246
Q

What are the components of the male tract & their functions

A
247
Q

Label the penis cross section

A
248
Q

What does the ischiocavernosus muscle do

A

Forces blood into corpus cavernosum & corpus spongiosum

249
Q

Define libido

A

behavioural manifestation of sexual interest

250
Q

Define intromission

A

entrance of penis into vagina

251
Q

Define erection

A

firming & enlargement of penis

252
Q

Define emission

A

movement of accessory gland fluid into male urethra to mix with sperm

253
Q

Define ejaculation

A

reflex expulsion of sperm from male reproductive tract

254
Q

What does erection require

A
255
Q

What is the mechanism of erection

A
  1. Erectile tissue is surrounded by heavy capsuled of varying thickness (tunica albuginea)
  2. connective tissue trabeculae penetrate the erectile tissue & break up space into sinusoids
  3. engorgement of cavernous tissue causes a blockage of venous return
256
Q

Describe the role of helicine arteries in erection

A

They empty into venous sinuses

In flaccid penis, lumen of helicine arteries is obliterated by sympathetic tone of muscles in vessel walls

In erection, parasympathetic fibres inhibit (relax) longitudinal muscle fibres in helicine arteries
- blood flows into central sinusoids
- swelling
- results in compression of oblique veins
- further penile swelling

257
Q

What happens to the bulbus glandis in an erect dog

A

Its an extension of the corpus spongiosum that gets large and turgid

258
Q

Describe the neurotransmitter that drives erectile process

A
259
Q

Describe an erection of a fibroelastic penis

A
260
Q

Describe an erection of a musculocavernous penis

A
261
Q

What part of the penis swells in different species during erection

A
262
Q

Label the dog penis (not arrows)

A
263
Q

What happens during ejaculation

A
264
Q

What is the duration & volume of ejaculation in different species

A
265
Q

What are some features of stallion ejaculation

A

series of jets

sperm rich fraction ejaculated in 3-4 squirts
last 5-8 squirts are at lower pressure + less sperm

266
Q

What are some features of boar ejaculation

A

series of seminal fractions

267
Q

What are some features of dog ejaculation

A

3 fractions

268
Q

Define priapism

A

semi-permanent eraction

269
Q

Define paraphimosis

A

Penis wont go back in prepuce

270
Q

Define stiation

A

further stimuli will not cause immediate responsiveness

271
Q

Define exhaustion (ejaculation)

A

no further sexual behaviour can be induced even with sufficient stimuli

272
Q

Fill in the table

A
273
Q

What are the components of ejaculate

A
274
Q

What is the function of seminal plasma

A
275
Q

What factors affect total sperm output & semen quality

A
276
Q

What is the equation for total sperm output

A

volume x concentration

277
Q

What are some equine venereal pathogens

A
278
Q

What are some dog venereal pathogens

A

Canine herpesvirus 1

279
Q

What are some cattle venereal pathogens

A

Bovine herpesvirus 1
Chlamydophila abortus
ureoplasma diversion

280
Q

What are some sheep venereal pathogens

A

Brucella ovis
Chlamydophila abortus

281
Q

What are some pig venereal pathogens

A
282
Q

How is bloodless castration done with a burdizzo

A
283
Q

How is bloodless castration done with elastrator castration pliers

A
284
Q

What are the 3 techniques for surgical castration

A
285
Q

What is this and on what species is it used

A

emasculators
cattle, sheep & pigs

286
Q

What methods of castration are used for:
cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, camelids, horses, dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea pigs, ferrets

A
287
Q

What are the legislations surrounding castration techniques

A
288
Q

When examining testes what do we need to look for

A

symmetry, size, firmness, lumps & bumps, that neither are painful, that both are present

289
Q

What structures are palpable through the scrotum

A

Epididymis, testes, spermatic cord

290
Q

define hypoechoic

A

region on ultrasound that is darker than surrounding tissues

291
Q

define hyperechoic

A

region on ultrasound that is lighter than surrounding tissues

292
Q

define homogenous

A

uniform appearance of tissue

293
Q

define echogenic stippling

A

small, bright spots seen on ultrasound

294
Q

define sagittal plane

A

imaging plane that divides body into left & right (longitudinal)

295
Q

define frontal plane

A

imaging plane that divides body into front and back (transverse)

296
Q

define mediastinum testes

A

fibrous structure that contains rete testis (network of tubules where sperm travels before entering epididymis)

297
Q

define parenchyma

A

functional tissue of testes
composed of seminiferous tubules & leydig cells

298
Q

Label the testes ultrasound

A
299
Q

What are the different breeding programmes for sheep

A

Selective breeding, crossbreeding, rotational breeding

300
Q

When does puberty start in a ram and when can you start to breed with them?

A

Puberty at 5-8 months
sexual maturity at 7-10 months

301
Q

Which hormones control seasonality in sheep

A

melatonin & prolactin

302
Q

What are the 2 main reasons for conducting a breeding soundness examination

A

fertility, breeding efficiency

should be done annually at least 10 weeks prior to breeding season

303
Q

What are the 5 Ts of ram MOT

A

teeth, toes, tone, testicles, test

304
Q

Pros and cons of electroejaculation for semen collection

A

Can be used in animals with NMSK problems
Requires specialised equipment

305
Q

Pros and cons of artificial vagina for semen collection

A

Mimics natural mating conditions
Collection success varies on individual animal behaviour

306
Q

A sample requires diluting 1 in 80 in normal saline for its motility analysis. how would you prepare 4ml of this solution?

A

0.05ml semen with 3.95ml saline

307
Q

How would you calculate daily sperm output?

A

concentration x semen volume x frequency of ejaculation

308
Q

How would you calculate sperm output per gram of testes?

A

total sperm output/weight of testes

309
Q

Which conditions would result in lower sperm output & reduced fertilisation ability?

A

low testosterone levels
disruption in GnRH, FSH or LH
cryptorchidism
environmental factors
genetic disorders

310
Q

What are the phases of the oestrus cycle?

A
311
Q

Draw a graph showing oestrogen & progesterone throughout the oestrus cycle

A
312
Q

What do high levels of oestradiol stimulate

A

attraction of males & LH surge (trigger for ovulation)

313
Q

What happens during pro-oetrus & oestrus

A

Ovarian follicles mature
Secrete increasing concentrations of oestradiol into blood
Oestrus behaviour

Follicular phase

314
Q

What happens during metoestrus & dioestrus?

A

Ovarian follicles ovulate to produce 1+ corpus luteum
CL secretes progesterone into blood
Ends with luteolysis of CL by prostaglandin F2a
Follicles continue to develop but fail to ovulate

Luteal phase

315
Q

Draw a graph showing oestrogen & progesterone during follicular & luteal phase

A
316
Q

Describe the oestrus cycle

A
  1. elevation in oestradiol & FSH leads to follicular development (follicular phase) & oestrus behaviour
  2. causes surge in LH which induces ovulation
  3. resultant CL secretes progesterone
  4. ovary enters luteal phase
  5. in absence of pregnancy, CL is lysed by PGF2a
  6. progesterone levels decline
317
Q

draw a graph of the oestrus cycle

A
318
Q

What happens during ovulation

A

Follicle ovulates
- oocyte released
- enters oviduct
- fertilisation?

Ovary
- corpus luteum forms
- secretes progesterone

319
Q

Which 2 hormones govern behaviour during oestrus cycle

A

Oestrogen & progesterone

320
Q

What are the ovarian phases of the oestrus cycle

A

Follicular & luteal

321
Q

What kind of hormones are progesterone & oestrogen

A

steroid hormones

322
Q

What kind of hormones are LH and FSH

A

gonadotrophin hormones

323
Q

Define polyoestrus

A

multiple cycles throughout the year

324
Q

Define seasonal polyoestrus

A

Multiple cycles during 1 season
Long day: spring - mare
Short day - autumn - ewe

325
Q

Define monoestrus

A

infrequent cycles, independent of season

326
Q

How is seasonality controlled

A
  1. By light detected by pineal gland
  2. Activates brain centres leading to release of gonadotrophins
  3. They activate ovaries stimulating development of follicles, secretion of oestrogen & progesterone
  4. This influences behaviour (receptivity) & uterine environment
327
Q

Fill in the table

A
328
Q

To what animal does this hormone profile belong

A

mare

329
Q

To what animal does this hormone profile belong

A

Ewe
Cow & sow similar

330
Q

To what animal does this hormone profile belong

A

bitch

331
Q

How long are proestrus, oestrus, ovulation, metoestrus, anoestrus & interoestrus in the bitch

A
332
Q

What factors/hormones influence production & maturation of sperm in ram?

A

Accessory glands, testosterone, LH & FSH
nutrition, season, day length, melatonin, neoplasia, inflammation, age/sexual maturity

333
Q

Calculate sperm concentration & total sperm output

A
334
Q

Label the testes ultrasound

A

A = vaginal tunic, scrotum, cremaster m.
B = mediastinum
C = parenchyma

335
Q

How can you test for presence of testicles

A
  1. HCG sim test (stimulates gonad to release testosterone)
    - Take sample
    - Inject chorulon (Freeze dried HCG)
    - collect another sample after 2 hours
  2. ultrasound
  3. palpation

Leah URO (8 decks)

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