Week 1 - Introduction to Personality Psychology Flashcards by Valentina Knezevic

What is a common dictionary definition of personality?
A. A set of temporary moods
B. The identity someone creates for social media
C. The distinctive character or qualities of a person
D. A collection of disorders

C. The distinctive character or qualities of a person

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__________ is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms
within the individual that are organized and relatively enduring and that influence his or her
interactions with, and adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical, and social environments.

Personality

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Psychological ______ are character- describe ways in which people are different
from each other.

traits

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Psychologically, personality is a set of:
A. Physical traits
B. Random emotions
C. Traits and mechanisms within an individual
D. Unconscious fears

C. Traits and mechanisms within an individual

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Traits describe:
A. How we treat others
B. How we adapt to culture
C. Ways people are different from each other
D. External behavior only

C. Ways people are different from each other

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Personality is useful in which of the following?
A. Describing, classifying, and punishing behavior
B. Explaining, ignoring, and minimizing differences among groups
C. Describing, explaining, and predicting differences among individuals
D. Enhancing memory, intelligence, and attention

C. Describing, explaining, and predicting differences among individuals

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Mechanisms of personality involve:
A. Chemical reactions
B. Social etiquette
C. Information processing
D. Food intake

C. Information processing

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Most psychological mechanisms have which three essential components?

A. Stimuli, cognition, and action
B. Perception, personality, and behavior
C. Inputs, decision rules, and outputs
D. Motivation, emotion, and reaction

C. Inputs, decision rules, and outputs

For example, an extraverted person might seek social opportunities, think about ways to connect with others, and behave in ways that invite interaction.

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Which of the following is NOT one of the environments personality influences?
A. Physical
B. Intrapsychic
C. Political
D. Social

C. Political

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If someone is introverted, their mechanism might tell them to:
A. Approach a crowd
B. Avoid a crowd
C. Start a speech
D. Seek attention

B. Avoid a crowd

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Which is NOT a way personality influences interactions?
A. Perception
B. Selection
C. Evocation
D. Evolution

D. Evolution

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Manipulation in the context of personality refers to:
A. Deceiving others
B. Strategically influencing others or the environment
C. Controlling emotions
D. Faking traits

B. Strategically influencing others or the environment

(e.g. saying please and thank you, “accidentally” forgetting to invite someone, using flattery to gain something)

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Which domain is concerned with how individuals differ?
A. Intrapsychic
B. Dispositional
C. Social
D. Adjustment

B. Dispositional

(all about individual differences such as being optimistic in all situations, preference to be alone)

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Which domain explores genetics and physiology?
A. Cognitive-Experiential
B. Dispositional
C. Biological
D. Adjustment

C. Biological

(hormones and genetic predispositions such as physiological arousal, aggression)

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The intrapsychic domain includes concepts like:
A. Diet and exercise
B. Psychoanalytic theories
C. Social roles
D. Cultural norms

B. Psychoanalytic theories

(Intrapsychic relates to processes within the person’s own mind)

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Self-concept and goals fall under which domain?
A. Biological
B. Cognitive-Experiential
C. Adjustment
D. Dispositional

B. Cognitive-Experiential

(personal and
private thoughts, feelings, desires, beliefs, and other subjective experiences)

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The social and cultural domain emphasizes:
A. Brain chemistry
B. Internal motivation
C. Personality in social contexts
D. Historical changes

C. Personality in social contexts

(social, cultural, and gendered positions in the world)

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What does the adjustment domain study?
A. Age-related personality shifts
B. Cognitive development
C. Coping and health outcomes
D. Dreams and fantasies

C. Coping and health outcomes

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Which of the following are examples of psychological adjustments or adaptations related to the Adjustment Domain?
(Select all that apply)
A. Coping with stress after losing a job
B. Developing a consistent pattern of extraversion
C. Adapting to a chronic illness
D. Learning to manage anxiety in social situations
E. Studying the unconscious mind’s influence on decision-making

Correct Answers:
A. Coping with stress after losing a job
C. Adapting to a chronic illness
D. Learning to manage anxiety in social situations

B. Developing a consistent pattern of extraversion is DISPOSITIONAL

E. Studying the unconscious mind’s influence on decision-making is INTRAPSYCHIC

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At the human nature level of analysis, people are like:
A. No others
B. Some others
C. All others
D. None of the above

C. All others

(e.g. the desire to live with others and
belong to social groups)

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Nomothetic research focuses on:
A. Cultural traditions
B. Group-level generalizations
C. Single individuals
D. Ancient theories

B. Group-level generalizations

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The dispositional domain cuts across:
A. Cultural domains
B. All other domains
C. Intrapsychic domain only
D. Evolutionary theory only

B. All other domains

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Behavioral genetics is part of which domain?
A. Adjustment
B. Biological
C. Cognitive-Experiential
D. Social

B. Biological

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Which is a component of the mechanism model? A. Emotion chart B. Decision rules C. Personality tests D. Environment types

B. Decision rules

Perceptions shaped by personality affect: A. Immune response B. How we see the world C. Birth order D. Socioeconomic status

B. How we see the world

Evocation refers to: A. Picking your environment B. Drawing responses from others C. Daydreaming D. Avoiding people

B. Drawing responses from others

Which theorist is NOT mentioned in the references? A. Freud B. Groth-Marnat C. McBurney D. Erikson

D. Erikson

The HEXACO model mentioned in the references focuses on: A. Dark Triad traits B. Cognitive biases C. Honesty-humility and emotionality D. Stages of development

C. Honesty-humility and emotionality

The “input → decision rules → output” model illustrates: A. Dream analysis B. Social conformity C. Personality mechanisms D. Therapy stages

C. Personality mechanisms

The phrase “relatively enduring” in personality means: A. Personality changes every day B. Personality remains stable over time C. Personality is not measurable D. Personality is an illusion

B. Personality remains stable over time

Adjectives that describe characteristics of people are known as what, and approximately how many of these exist in the English language? A. Personality adjectives; around 5,000 B. Descriptive modifiers; around 10,000 C. Trait-descriptive adjectives; nearly 20,000 D. Character traits; more than 50,000

C. Trait-descriptive adjectives; nearly 20,000

Which of the following statements reflect the principle of comprehensiveness in evaluating personality theories? (Select all that apply) A. The theory explains a wide range of observed facts within its domain B. The theory only addresses one rare behavior in depth C. A theory is considered better if it can explain more empirical findings D. The theory disregards outliers and exceptions to maintain simplicity

A. The theory explains a wide range of observed facts within its domain C. A theory is considered better if it can explain more empirical findings

Which features indicate that a personality theory has high heuristic value? (Select all that apply) A. It generates new hypotheses and leads to previously unknown discoveries B. It focuses only on confirming existing knowledge C. It guides researchers toward new areas of exploration D. It discourages challenging old theories

A. It generates new hypotheses and leads to previously unknown discoveries C. It guides researchers toward new areas of exploration

Which of the following describe a theory that meets the standard of testability? (Select all that apply) A. It makes precise predictions that can be empirically tested B. Its core assumptions are vague and philosophical C. It can be falsified if the data don’t match predictions D. It is judged to be poor if it cannot be tested in a scientific way

A. It makes precise predictions that can be empirically tested C. It can be falsified if the data don’t match predictions D. It is judged to be poor if it cannot be tested in a scientific way

Which statements reflect the principle of parsimony in evaluating personality theories? (Select all that apply) A. The theory explains findings using as few assumptions as possible B. A simpler theory is always better than a more complex one C. A complex theory may be necessary to accurately explain human personality D. A theory with fewer premises is preferred if it explains the same findings

A. The theory explains findings using as few assumptions as possible C. A complex theory may be necessary to accurately explain human personality D. A theory with fewer premises is preferred if it explains the same findings

Which scenarios demonstrate compatibility and integration across domains and levels? (Select all that apply) A. A theory of personality development that aligns with findings in genetics and physiology B. A personality theory that contradicts well-established social or cultural principles C. A theory that violates known principles in biology D. A theory that integrates knowledge from multiple scientific levels without contradiction

A. A theory of personality development that aligns with findings in genetics and physiology D. A theory that integrates knowledge from multiple scientific levels without contradiction

Which combination of traits is expected in a good personality theory? A. Simplicity, bias, popularity, and intuition B. Consistency, comprehensiveness, testability, parsimony, and heuristic value C. Popularity, flexibility, emotional appeal, and length D. Creativity, humor, repetition, and ambiguity

B. Consistency, comprehensiveness, testability, parsimony, and heuristic value

Which of the following is not a key criterion for a good personality theory? A. Parsimony B. Popularity C. Testability D. Heuristic value

B. Popularity

Why are theories important in personality research? A. They replace the need for data B. They provide a framework for research and prediction C. They eliminate the need for experiments D. They are used only in clinical settings

B. They provide a framework for research and prediction

Which data type involves individuals reporting on their own behavior? A. O-data B. T-data C. S-data D. L-data

C. S-data

What is a limitation of self-report (S-data)? A. It’s more expensive than other data types B. Observers may be biased C. People may lack accurate self-knowledge D. It requires lab equipment

C. People may lack accurate self-knowledge (also people may lie or be unwilling to disclose some information such as criminal activity or sexual practices)

Observer-report data (O-data) is most useful because: A. It's always more accurate than S-data B. It provides access to otherwise inaccessible information C. It eliminates bias D. It doesn't require observers

B. It provides access to otherwise inaccessible information

What best defines a structured self-report in personality assessment? A. A test where participants freely describe their thoughts and feelings B. A questionnaire with fixed response options like true/false or multiple choice C. A clinical interview conducted by a psychologist D. A journal entry analyzed for emotional content

B. A questionnaire with fixed response options like true/false or multiple choice

Which of the following is an example of a structured self-report item? A. “Tell me about the parties you like the most.” B. “What makes you feel confident in social situations?” C. “I like loud and crowded parties” – answer “true” or “false” D. “Describe your ideal day.”

C. “I like loud and crowded parties” – answer “true” or “false”

What is a defining characteristic of unstructured self-report items? A. They use rating scales B. They provide fixed answer options C. They are open-ended and allow participants to respond freely D. They are scored automatically by computers

C. They are open-ended and allow participants to respond freely

The Twenty Statements Test (TST) asks participants to complete 20 sentences beginning with: A. “I believe” B. “My friends say” C. “I like” D. “I am”

D. “I am”

Why do open-ended personality tests require a coding scheme? A. To choose the best answer from a list B. To classify and interpret free-form responses C. To randomize participant answers D. To automatically score structured responses

B. To classify and interpret free-form responses

In the Twenty Statements Test (TST), which of the following types of responses might be used to assess social characteristics? A. “I am 19 years old” B. “I am introverted” C. “I am intelligent” D. “I like quiet nights at home”

B. “I am introverted” (reflects a measurable social or personality trait)

What distinguishes structured personality questionnaires from unstructured ones? A. They are based on observation, not self-report B. They allow for long-form narrative responses C. They provide fixed response options to the participant D. They use open-ended essay questions

C. They provide fixed response options to the participant

Which of the following is an example of a structured self-report format? A. A psychologist asks the participant to describe a recent dream B. A participant writes about their social life in a journal C. A checklist of adjectives the participant selects from to describe themselves D. A free-association word task

C. A checklist of adjectives the participant selects from to describe themselves

What is the Adjective Check List (ACL) used for? A. To test memory recall B. To record physiological responses C. To let individuals choose adjectives that describe their personality D. To measure reaction time

C. To let individuals choose adjectives that describe their personality

What does a Likert rating scale measure in personality questionnaires? A. The time it takes to complete a checklist B. The emotional tone of adjective choices C. The degree to which a trait describes the participant D. The frequency of lying in responses

C. The degree to which a trait describes the participant

Which of the following best describes how a Likert scale might be used? A. Participants write an essay about their traits B. Participants rate how much a word like “ambitious” describes them from 1 (least) to 7 (most) C. Participants draw a self-portrait to express personality D. Participants guess which trait adjectives others would assign to them

B. Participants rate how much a word like “ambitious” describes them from 1 (least) to 7 (most)

Which of the following best describes the format used by personality inventories like the CPI (California Psychological Inventory)? A. Open-ended questions asking about life history B. Adjective checklists without response scales C. Statements participants agree or disagree with D. Word association tasks

C. Statements participants agree or disagree with

Which of the following is an example of a widely used personality inventory? A. Twenty Statements Test B. Myers-Briggs Projection Method C. California Psychological Inventory (CPI) D. Trait Mapping Sheet

C. California Psychological Inventory (CPI) (also NEO Personality Inventory)

How do participants typically respond to NEO Personality Inventory items? A. By ranking statements from favorite to least favorite B. By circling words they identify with C. By rating how much they agree using a 1–5 Likert scale D. By choosing pictures that represent emotions

C. By rating how much they agree using a 1–5 Likert scale

What are the anchors used in the Likert scale format of the NEO Personality Inventory? A. "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree" B. "Yes" to "No" C. "Rarely" to "Often" D. "Least true" to "Most true"

A. "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree"

What is the primary purpose of self-report questionnaires like the NEO-PI and CPI? A. To test intelligence B. To diagnose medical conditions C. To assess consistent personality traits D. To evaluate memory recall

C. To assess consistent personality traits

What is Observer-report data (O-data)? A. Data based on physiological measurements B. Data based on responses to questionnaires by the participant C. Data gathered from people who know the target individual D. Data collected from analyzing dreams and unconscious content

C. Data gathered from people who know the target individual

Which of the following is not a typical source of Observer-report data? A. Friends B. Teachers C. The participant themselves D. Family members

C. The participant themselves

What is one advantage of using Observer-report data (O-data) in personality assessment? A. Observers can access hidden physiological traits B. It eliminates bias in participant self-perceptions C. Observers can report on social behaviors and reputations that are not always self-recognized D. It uses only objective scoring systems

C. Observers can report on social behaviors and reputations that are not always self-recognized

Naturalistic observation is considered more: A. Controlled B. Realistic C. Expensive D. Subjective

B. Realistic

Artificial observation allows researchers to: A. Reduce cost B. Observe in natural settings C. Control conditions of observation D. Eliminate observer influence

C. Control conditions of observation

What did the study by Fetchenhauer, Groothuis, & Pradel (2010) suggest about observer reports? A. Observers need extended time to judge altruism accurately B. Altruism can only be identified by the person themselves C. Altruistic traits can sometimes be accurately detected within 20 seconds D. Observer reports are only useful in professional settings

C. Altruistic traits can sometimes be accurately detected within 20 seconds

According to Santayana, what is a unique strength of observers? A. They always provide more accurate results than tests B. They use advanced statistical methods C. They can sometimes see truths about a person that the person cannot see themselves D. They rely only on past behavior to assess traits

C. They can sometimes see truths about a person that the person cannot see themselves

What is a major advantage of observer-reports over self-report data? A. Observer-reports are always anonymous B. Observer-reports use open-ended questions C. Multiple observers can provide data for a single person D. Observers never show bias

C. Multiple observers can provide data for a single person

What is the term for the degree to which different observers agree in their assessments? A. Face validity B. Temporal reliability C. Inter-rater reliability D. Construct validity

C. Inter-rater reliability

Why is using multiple observers preferred over using just one? A. It ensures everyone rates the person the same way B. It reduces the influence of personal biases from any single observer C. It eliminates the need for statistical analysis D. It allows for unstructured data collection

B. It reduces the influence of personal biases from any single observer

How does averaging assessments from multiple observers affect personality data? A. It decreases variability and accuracy B. It makes the data more subjective C. It increases validity and reliability D. It leads to less agreement between raters

C. It increases validity and reliability

What are the two primary strategies for selecting observers in personality research? A. Random sampling and stratified sampling B. Online surveys and laboratory testing C. Professional assessors and people who know the participant D. Teachers and employers

C. Professional assessors and people who know the participant

Which of the following is true about professional personality assessors? A. They are usually family members or friends B. They only observe participants in virtual settings C. They provide independent personality descriptions based on structured observations D. They rely on interviews with the participant's acquaintances

C. They provide independent personality descriptions based on structured observations

What is a limitation of using professional observers in personality assessments like those at the IPSR? A. They tend to be biased by personal history with the participant B. They cannot observe private or intimate behaviors C. They only collect data through written surveys D. They require participants to complete the assessment at home

B. They cannot observe private or intimate behaviors

What is meant by the concept of multiple social personalities in observer-report data? A. People’s personalities are constantly changing and unstable B. Different observers may provide inaccurate or conflicting descriptions C. Individuals display different aspects of their personality depending on the social context and relationship D. Everyone has multiple personalities that can be diagnosed clinically

C. Individuals display different aspects of their personality depending on the social context and relationship (advantage of O-report data)

What best describes naturalistic observation in personality research? A. Observing people in lab settings under controlled tasks B. Collecting survey responses from participants C. Observing people in their real-life environments without interference D. Analyzing participants' test scores

C. Observing people in their real-life environments without interference

What is a major limitation of naturalistic observation? A. It lacks any real-world applicability B. Observers cannot collect emotional data C. Researchers cannot control the situations or events observed D. It always results in biased reporting

C. Researchers cannot control the situations or events observed

Which of the following is an example of artificial observation? A. Following a participant through their workday B. Asking couples to discuss a disagreement in a lab setting C. Recording a participant's phone usage habits over a week D. Observing a child during recess at school

B. Asking couples to discuss a disagreement in a lab setting

What is the main advantage of artificial observation compared to naturalistic observation? A. It provides a more natural view of behavior B. It allows better access to private actions C. It allows the researcher to control and elicit specific behaviors D. It always results in higher participant honesty

C. It allows the researcher to control and elicit specific behaviors

Which of the following statements best reflects a key consideration in using Observer-report data (O-data)? A. Professional assessors are always more reliable than intimate observers B. Artificial settings are superior because they produce natural behavior C. The choice of observer type and setting depends on the specific goals of the research D. Naturalistic observation is the only valid method in personality research

C. The choice of observer type and setting depends on the specific goals of the research (There’s no one-size-fits-all method in O-data collection. Researchers must weigh the trade-offs between professional vs. intimate observers and naturalistic vs. artificial settings based on what they are trying to study)

What is the primary goal of using Test Data (T-data) in personality research? A. To observe participants in their natural environments B. To assess how people respond to open-ended questions C. To examine how individuals react to the same standardized situation D. To measure agreement between multiple observers

C. To examine how individuals react to the same standardized situation

What is the defining feature of Test Data (T-data) in personality research? A. It involves collecting survey responses from friends and family B. It asks participants to describe themselves in 20 open-ended statements C. It measures how individuals behave in controlled, identical situations D. It involves observing natural, everyday behavior without interference

C. It measures how individuals behave in controlled, identical situations

In Murray’s bridge-building test, what was the real trait being assessed, despite participants thinking it was leadership? A. Creativity B. Memory skills C. Tolerance of frustration and performance under adversity D. Cooperation skills

C. Tolerance of frustration and performance under adversity

In the bridge-building test, what role did the two assistants play? A. They were trained engineers helping with the task B. They were also being assessed for leadership C. They acted as confederates meant to frustrate the participant D. They gave feedback on bridge-building technique

C. They acted as confederates meant to frustrate the participant

What was the main purpose of Megargee’s study on dominance? A. To see how personality changes under stress B. To test the effect of color-coded tasks on teamwork C. To examine how dominance influences who becomes a leader in a pair D. To compare memory recall between men and women

C. To examine how dominance influences who becomes a leader in a pair

In Megargee’s study, what was surprising about the high-dominant women in mixed-sex pairs? A. They refused to participate B. They all became followers by choice C. Most appointed their low-dominant male partner as leader D. They outperformed the men in technical tasks

C. Most appointed their low-dominant male partner as leader

What did Megargee’s tape-recorded conversations reveal about high-dominant women? A. They were passive and indecisive B. They avoided leadership altogether C. They controlled the decision-making process even if they didn’t take the leader role D. They resisted participating in team discussions

C. They controlled the decision-making process even if they didn’t take the leader role

Which is a limitation of T-data? A. It’s too expensive B. It is not standardized C. Participants may guess what is being measured and adjust their behaviour D. It doesn’t involve real behavior

C. Participants may guess what is being measured and adjust their behaviour

What is one key advantage of using T-data in personality research? A. It guarantees natural, unfiltered behavior B. It allows researchers to control variables and test specific hypotheses C. It avoids the need for structured environments D. It eliminates all bias from participant responses

B. It allows researchers to control variables and test specific hypotheses

How can the experimenter's personality become a limitation in T-data collection? A. It increases participant dropout B. It causes observers to leave the room C. It may influence how participants behave during the test D. It distorts the scoring of personality inventories

C. It may influence how participants behave during the test

Which T-data method avoids observer bias but isn’t ideal for measuring personality? A. Self-report B. Projective techniques C. Mechanical recording devices D. Physiological tests

C. Mechanical recording devices

What is the primary purpose of using an actometer in personality research? A. To assess emotional stability B. To record verbal responses to stress C. To measure activity or energy level through movement D. To monitor heart rate and body temperature

C. To measure activity or energy level through movement = self-winding watch, which can be strapped to the arms or legs of participants (typically, children)

What is a major advantage of using electronic recording devices in personality assessment? A. They eliminate the need for hypothesis testing B. They assess naturally occurring behavior outside the lab C. They require no consent from participants D. They are completely free of response bias

B. They assess naturally occurring behavior outside the lab

Which of the following was found using the Electronic Activated Recorder? A. People high in narcissism had higher heart rates B. Sympathy and gratitude were highly unstable over time C. Moral behavior, such as showing sympathy, was highly stable over time D. People who exercised more scored lower on conscientiousness

C. Moral behavior, such as showing sympathy, was highly stable over time

Why might electronic monitoring not fully eliminate bias in behavior? A. The devices often break mid-study B. Participants can’t interpret the technology C. People may alter their behavior if they know they’re being monitored D. It only works on social media users

C. People may alter their behavior if they know they’re being monitored

What is a key advantage of using physiological data in personality research? A. It can reveal unconscious responses such as arousal and reactivity to stimuli B. It guarantees more honest self-report answers C. It eliminates the need for controlled testing environments D. It is only useful for studying memory and learning

A. It can reveal unconscious responses such as arousal and reactivity to stimuli

A benefit of physiological data is: A. It’s easy to fake B. It eliminates environmental influence C. It's difficult to fake responses D. It's commonly used in surveys

C. It's difficult to fake responses (Physiological data, like heart rate, brain activity, and startle reflexes, can reflect core traits such as arousal levels, stress reactivity, and emotional processing, which are valuable in personality research—especially in studying atypical responses, such as in psychopathy)

What did Christopher Patrick’s research using the eyeblink startle reflex reveal about psychopaths? A. They are more reactive to frightening images than non-psychopaths B. They exhibit a slower or absent startle reflex in response to fear-inducing stimuli C. They are unable to recognize threatening images like snakes or spiders D. They blink more often during normal conditions than anxious people

B. They exhibit a slower or absent startle reflex in response to fear-inducing stimuli (Patrick's study found that psychopaths did not show an enhanced startle response when viewing anxiety-inducing images, suggesting a reduced physiological reaction to fear, which may help explain their lack of guilt or fear when committing harmful acts)

How does fMRI detect brain activity? A. By measuring the brain's electrical output during movement B. By tracking hormonal levels in the bloodstream C. By gauging the amount of oxygen delivered to different brain regions D. By recording eye movements during decision-making tasks

C. By gauging the amount of oxygen delivered to different brain regions (fMRI identifies active brain areas by measuring oxygen-rich blood flow, which increases in regions engaged during specific mental tasks)

What is a key limitation of using fMRI in personality research? A. It cannot measure blood oxygen levels in the brain B. It is unable to produce visual images of brain activity C. It requires comparing brain activity to a resting state, which may differ between individuals D. It can only be used during sleep or unconscious states

C. It requires comparing brain activity to a resting state, which may differ between individuals (fMRI measures brain activity by comparing blood flow in activated vs. resting states, but the definition of "resting" can vary (e.g., some people may mentally focus on sports, others on social thoughts), which can complicate interpretation of results)

What characterizes projective techniques as a form of Test Data (T-data)? A. Participants choose from a list of adjectives B. Participants complete physical tasks under observation C. Participants are shown a standard, ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe what they see D. Participants record their daily behavior in a journal

C. Participants are shown a standard, ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe what they see

What is the core idea behind projective techniques like the Rorschach inkblot test? A. They measure reaction time to emotional stimuli B. They ask participants to rank personality traits C. They reveal personality by analyzing how individuals interpret ambiguous stimuli D. They observe how individuals perform physical tasks under stress

C. They reveal personality by analyzing how individuals interpret ambiguous stimuli

Why are projective techniques classified as Test Data (T-data) in personality assessment? A. Because they rely on observer ratings of natural behavior B. Because participants write about their emotions freely C. Because all participants receive the same stimulus and instructions in a controlled situation D. Because they involve personal interviews and case histories

C. Because all participants receive the same stimulus and instructions in a controlled situation

What is a commonly stated advantage of projective techniques in personality assessment? A. They produce results with consistently high reliability B. They require little interpretation from psychologists C. They can uncover unconscious wishes, desires, or conflicts D. They are based entirely on self-report questionnaires

C. They can uncover unconscious wishes, desires, or conflicts (not detectable on questionnaire)

A major limitation of projective techniques is: A. They lack any value B. They are too easy to administer C. They have uncertain validity and reliability D. They are always used in classrooms

C. They have uncertain validity and reliability

What best describes Life-outcome data (L-data) in personality assessment? A. Data collected through self-report personality inventories B. Observational data gathered in laboratory experiments C. Information about publicly observable life events and outcomes D. Brain scans used to assess long-term memory

C. Information about publicly observable life events and outcomes (marriage register, criminal history, academic achievement....)

Life-outcome data (L-data) includes: A. Interview results B. Survey responses C. Speeding ticket history D. Reactions in lab studies

C. Speeding ticket history

In personality psychology, researchers often rely on self-report (S-data) and observer-report (O-data) to make predictions about which type of data? A. Laboratory test results B. Lifestyle choices C. Life outcomes (L-data) D. Learned habits

C. Life outcomes (L-data)

What is triangulation in personality research? A. Using three-point scales B. Comparing scores across years C. Using multiple data sources to verify findings D. Testing personality three times

C. Using multiple data sources to verify findings

In personality assessment, the strategy of examining whether a result appears across multiple data sources is known as: A. Cross-validation B. Data convergence C. Triangulation D. Method matching

C. Triangulation

If someone scores high in extraversion across S-data, O-data, and L-data, this demonstrates: A. Inconsistency B. Unreliability C. Triangulation D. Experimental error

C. Triangulation

Question: What does a reliable personality measure reflect? A. The average score of a population B. The variability in an individual's responses C. The true level of the trait being measured D. The opinion of the observer

C. The true level of the trait being measured

Question: Which of the following is an example of test-retest reliability? A. Correlation between different observers’ ratings B. High agreement among items on the same test C. Consistent scores over time for the same individual D. Comparing two different traits in one test

C. Consistent scores over time for the same individual

Question: What does internal consistency reliability assess? A. Agreement between multiple observers B. Stability of scores across time C. Correlation among items within a test D. Correlation between different tests

C. Correlation among items within a test

What is the minimum reliability score considered acceptable for individual assessment? A. .50 B. .60 C. .70 D. .80

D. .80

Internal consistency refers to: A. Agreement between raters B. Similarity among test items C. Stability over time D. Parallel test versions

B. Similarity among test items

Inter-rater reliability measures: A. Test-retest consistency B. How similar test items are C. Agreement between observers D. Predictive power of a test

C. Agreement between observers

Question: When two or more observers give similar ratings for a person’s traits, the measure is said to have: A. Test-retest reliability B. Face validity C. Inter-rater reliability D. Internal consistency

C. Inter-rater reliability

In personality assessment, what does the term response set refer to? A. A collection of personality traits measured in a single test B. The deliberate distortion of responses to impress the researcher C. The tendency to respond to questions in ways unrelated to their actual content D. A group of questions that all measure the same psychological construct

C. The tendency to respond to questions in ways unrelated to their actual content

Which of the following best describes the response set known as acquiescence? A. The tendency to choose extreme answers, like "strongly agree" B. The tendency to disagree with every question C. The tendency to agree with questionnaire items regardless of their content D. The tendency to skip questions that seem too personal

C. The tendency to agree with questionnaire items regardless of their content (non content responding)

A participant agrees with both of the following statements: "I am always organized." "I often leave things messy." What response style does this suggest? A. Social desirability B. Acquiescence (yea-saying) C. Extreme responding D. Internal consistency

B. Acquiescence (yea-saying)

Which of the following best defines extreme responding in personality questionnaires? A. Frequently changing answers throughout the test B. Choosing only the most intense options, such as "strongly agree" or "strongly disagree" C. Consistently skipping difficult questions D. Selecting neutral answers to avoid judgment

B. Choosing only the most intense options, such as "strongly agree" or "strongly disagree"

What does the response set known as social desirability refer to? A. Choosing random answers to finish quickly B. Trying to appear likable or well-adjusted in responses C. Giving extreme ratings regardless of item content D. Consistently disagreeing with test items

B. Trying to appear likable or well-adjusted in responses

A person answers “True” to the statement “Most of the time I am happy,” even though they feel happy only about 45% of the time. What does this most likely indicate? A. Test-retest error B. Acquiescence bias C. Social desirability responding D. Lack of understanding of the question

C. Social desirability responding

Delroy Paulhus' Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding includes two subscales. One of them is Impression Management, which measures: A. The need for social approval B. Honest self-perception C. Deliberate efforts to appear favorable to others D. Positive illusions that improve health

C. Deliberate efforts to appear favorable to others

Which of the following is a strategy to reduce the influence of social desirability in personality questionnaires? A. Adding more reverse-scored items B. Using forced-choice formats with equally desirable options C. Repeating the same question multiple times D. Allowing participants to skip personal questions

B. Using forced-choice formats with equally desirable options Instead of asking: “I am always kind to others.” (True/False) ← Very socially desirable! A forced-choice item might ask: Which describes you better? A. I enjoy helping people solve their problems. B. I like encouraging people to do their best. (Both sound good — now the participant must reflect more honestly.)

Increasing test length generally: A. Reduces cost B. Decreases reliability C. Increases reliability D. Has no effect

C. Increases reliability

A shorter test-retest interval results in: A. Lower reliability B. Higher reliability C. No effect D. Greater variation

B. Higher reliability

What does validity indicate? A. Agreement among raters B. Consistency of results C. Whether a test measures what it claims D. The number of test items

C. Whether a test measures what it claims

What does face validity refer to in personality testing? A. The test predicts future behavior B. The test results are consistent over time C. The test appears, on the surface, to measure what it claims to D. The test includes facial expression analysis

C. The test appears, on the surface, to measure what it claims to

Which type of validity checks whether items look like they measure the intended construct? A. Face validity B. Content validity C. Construct validity D. Predictive validity

A. Face validity

Which type of validity is demonstrated when a test successfully forecasts future behavior or outcomes? A. Convergent validity B. Discriminant validity C. Predictive validity D. Construct validity

C. Predictive validity

What does convergent validity assess? A. Whether a test predicts behavior unrelated to the trait B. Whether a test correlates with other tests measuring the same construct C. Whether test items are clear and easy to understand D. Whether a test appears logical to participants

B. Whether a test correlates with other tests measuring the same construct

Convergent validity is high when a test: A. Correlates with unrelated measures B. Correlates with similar constructs C. Appears logical to participants D. Predicts future performance

B. Correlates with similar constructs

Which type of validity ensures that a test does not correlate with measures of unrelated constructs? A. Face validity B. Convergent validity C. Predictive validity D. Discriminant validity

D. Discriminant validity

Discriminant validity ensures a test: A. Correlates highly with other measures B. Is easy to complete C. Does not correlate with unrelated constructs D. Looks valid

C. Does not correlate with unrelated constructs

Predictive validity refers to: A. Items appearing logical B. Ability of the test to predict real-world outcomes C. Test consistency D. Similarity between raters

B. Ability of the test to predict real-world outcomes

Which type of validity is the broadest, encompassing all other types, and shows that a test truly measures the theoretical concept it claims to? A. Construct validity B. Criterion validity C. Face validity D. Inter-rater validity

A. Construct validity

A personality test includes items like “I tricked a friend to get what I wanted” and “I pretended to be hurt to gain sympathy” to measure manipulativeness. Which type of validity does this illustrate? A. Construct validity B. Discriminant validity C. Predictive validity D. Face validity

D. Face validity (These items clearly match the trait being measured)

A test measuring sensation seeking correctly predicts who enjoys risky activities like skydiving and gambling. What type of validity does this show? A. Face validity B. Predictive validity C. Convergent validity D. Discriminant validity

B. Predictive validity

A self-report scale of tolerance correlates highly with peer ratings of tolerance for the same individuals. This is an example of: A. Predictive validity B. Discriminant validity C. Convergent validity D. Face validity

C. Convergent validity

A researcher creates a measure of life satisfaction and shows that it does not correlate with social desirability scores. Which type of validity is being demonstrated? A. Convergent validity B. Construct validity C. Discriminant validity D. Face validity

C. Discriminant validity

A new creativity test correlates with peer ratings of creativity, predicts success in art classes, and does not correlate with IQ scores. This pattern suggests the test has: A. Face validity only B. Discriminant validity but not predictive validity C. Poor construct validity D. Strong construct validity

D. Strong construct validity

What does generalizability refer to in personality assessment? A. The consistency of a test over time B. The ability of a test to predict future behavior C. The extent to which a test remains valid across different people, situations, and cultures D. The degree to which test items appear to measure what they claim to

C. The extent to which a test remains valid across different people, situations, and cultures

A personality test measuring dominance predicts leadership in both workplace meetings and casual group outings. It also shows similar results for men and women, and across different cultural groups. What characteristic of the test is being demonstrated? A. Predictive validity B. Internal consistency C. Generalizability D. Discriminant validity

C. Generalizability

A personality scale measuring conscientiousness accurately predicts both class attendance and keeping a bedroom tidy. This is an example of generalizability across: A. Different traits B. Different test formats C. Different conditions or situations D. Different time periods

C. Different conditions or situations

Generalisability reflects: A. Bias in test questions B. A test’s reliability C. A test's validity across different contexts D. Sample size of study

C. A test's validity across different contexts

Which method is best to establish causality? A. Correlational design B. Case study C. Meta-analysis D. Experimental design

D. Experimental design

What is a core requirement of experimental design? A. Using large samples only B. Avoiding manipulation C. Random assignment to conditions D. Survey administration

C. Random assignment to conditions

The main advantage of correlational designs is: A. Establishing causation B. Identifying natural relationships between variables C. Ensuring group equivalence D. Manipulating behavior

B. Identifying natural relationships between variables

A key disadvantage of case studies is: A. They are too expensive B. They take too little time C. They cannot be generalized D. They involve large samples

C. They cannot be generalized

Which of the following statements is true? A. One perfect data source exists B. No data source is without limitations C. O-data is always superior D. Self-report is the most objective

B. No data source is without limitations

What determines the choice of data source or method? A. Cost only B. Researcher's preference C. Research question and goal D. Simplicity of method

C. Research question and goal

Which research design gives the most detail on a single person? A. Correlational B. Experimental C. Case study D. Survey

C. Case study

Which of the following is a third-variable problem in correlational research? A. Confounding variable influencing both variables of interest B. Lack of participants C. Poor scoring system D. Use of self-report data

A. Confounding variable influencing both variables of interest

Which method is best when you want to identify what variables are naturally related? A. Experimental design B. Correlational design C. Case study D. Predictive design

B. Correlational design

Which statement best reflects the internal causal view of personality traits? A. Traits are labels we use to summarize repeated behaviors. B. People act a certain way because of underlying internal traits. C. Personality traits don’t influence behavior in different situations. D. Behavior is always determined by external circumstances.

B. People act a certain way because of underlying internal traits.

Which statement best represents the descriptive summary view of traits? A. Traits are internal causes of behavior. B. Traits are unconscious desires driving behavior. C. Traits summarize behavior without assuming internal causes. D. Traits are genetic expressions in the brain.

C. Traits summarize behavior without assuming internal causes. (Traits just describe how you behave without assuming any internal cause (e.g., you often help, so we call you helpful — no assumption about why).

Which statement best illustrates the descriptive summary view of personality traits? A. People help others because they have an internal desire to be helpful. B. Traits exist inside the person and are the direct cause of their actions. C. People are described as helpful because they often behave in helpful ways. D. Helping behavior is caused by unconscious motivations.

C. People are described as helpful because they often behave in helpful ways.

Which of the following is a key assumption of the lexical approach to identifying traits? A. Traits must be defined statistically before analysis. B. Important traits are encoded in natural human language. C. Trait definitions come solely from expert theories. D. Traits are only found through experimental methods.

B. Important traits are encoded in natural human language. (The lexical approach says that important personality traits are found in language. If a trait is important to humans, people probably created words to describe it (like "friendly," "shy," or "honest").

Which method is commonly used in the statistical approach to identify groups of related traits? A. Reverse scoring B. Correlational mapping C. Factor analysis D. Field experimentation

C. Factor analysis

The theoretical approach to identifying traits relies primarily on: A. Synonym frequency in natural language B. Survey data collected over time C. Pre-existing psychological theories D. Cross-cultural linguistic comparisons

C. Pre-existing psychological theories (This approach starts with a theory. You first believe something about people (e.g., Freud believed personality was shaped by unconscious conflict), then design tools to measure those ideas. It’s only as strong as the theory itself)

Which of the following is not one of the three key assumptions of trait psychology? A. Traits are completely changeable across life stages B. Traits show meaningful individual differences C. Traits remain relatively stable over time D. Traits are consistent across situations

A. Traits are completely changeable across life stages (Explanation: Trait psychology assumes three things: 1. People differ in personality in meaningful ways. 2. Traits are stable over time. 3. Traits are consistent across situations (but behavior may look different depending on the context).

What does the person-situation interaction model suggest about behavior? A. Only personality traits influence behavior. B. Only the situation determines behavior. C. Personality and situation interact to influence behavior. D. Neither traits nor situations matter much for behavior.

C. Personality and situation interact to influence behavior. (Your behavior is influenced by both: 1. Your personality (traits), and 2. The situation you're in. They work together. For example, a shy person might be talkative around close friends (situation), but quiet at a party)

According to the concept of situational specificity, traits are most likely to influence behavior when: A. The situation is strong and structured B. The situation is weak or ambiguous C. There is no social pressure D. People are being observed closely

B. The situation is weak or ambiguous (Sometimes a strong situation (like a fire drill or an exam) can make almost everyone act the same — personality matters less. In weaker or unclear situations, your personality shows more)

Why is aggregation important in personality assessment? A. It reveals a person’s unconscious motives. B. It reduces test reliability. C. It averages behavior over time to improve accuracy. D. It replaces self-report data with physiological data.

C. It averages behavior over time to improve accuracy. (Traits are best measured by looking at behavior over time or in multiple situations. A single moment (like being late once) may not reflect your trait well. More data = more accuracy)

Which of the following best describes the three ways personality can affect situations? A) Evaluation, Persuasion, and Control B) Selection, Evocation, and Manipulation C) Observation, Adaptation, and Negotiation D) Reflection, Interaction, and Domination

B) Selection, Evocation, and Manipulation

Which of the following illustrates evocation as a trait-situation interaction? A. A person chooses a quiet environment because they are introverted. B. A sociable person makes others more talkative. C. A person avoids social events due to anxiety. D. A person changes their own attitude to match the group.

B. A sociable person makes others more talkative. Evocation: Your traits bring out reactions in others (e.g., a kind person gets kindness back).

Which of the following best illustrates manipulation as a personality process? A. Choosing to attend a quiet event because you dislike crowds B. Making others feel guilty so they will do you a favor C. Reacting calmly in a stressful situation D. Being influenced by others’ opinions in a group discussion

B. Making others feel guilty so they will do you a favor (Manipulation: Intentionally influencing others (e.g., flattery or guilt).

Which of the following best illustrates the concept of Selection in personality psychology? A) A cheerful person making others smile through their behavior B) An extrovert attending a networking event instead of staying home C) A person complimenting others to get what they want D) A shy individual becoming more outgoing in a new environment

B) An extrovert attending a networking event instead of staying home Selection: Choosing environments that fit your personality (e.g., introverts avoid parties).