Week 3 H6,8,11 Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
How are the sensory cortices organized?
A
They are organized based on complexity, with areas ranging from V1 to V5 for vision, each processing increasingly complex visual information.
2
Q
What do the primary areas in the sensory cortices handle?
A
They process basic features of stimuli.
3
Q
What do the secondary areas in the sensory cortices focus on?
A
They process more complex features, e.g., for vision, areas V1 to V5 process increasingly complex visual information.
4
Q
What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down perception?
A
Perception depends on both bottom-up (stimuli from the senses) and top-down (e.g., attention, predictions, previous knowledge) processes.
5
Q
A
6
Q
Describe the process of visual perception.
A
Light is reflected from objects
->
enters eyes
->
lens refracts the light
-> projects onto the retina
-> rods (for dark vision) and cones (for color) transduce it into electrical pulses
-> these are carried by ganglion cells
-> their axons bundle to form the optic nerve at the back of the eye -> meet at the optic chiasm
-> processed differently based on left and right visual fields
-> over 90% of the axons in the optic nerve end in the LGN in the thalamus
-> LGN sends signals to the visual cortex.
7
Q
What pathway plays the largest role in visual perception?
A
The pathway from the LGN to V1.
8
Q
What roles do the suprachiasmatic nucleus and superior colliculus play in perception?
A
They contribute to the perception of day and night in relation to the circadian rhythm and quick eye movements, respectively.
9
Q
Areas in the visual cortices (V1-V5) have their own functional specialization. What is the specialization of V5?
A
V5 is specialized for motion.
10
Q
Describe the ventral pathway in visual processing.
A
The ventral pathway involves the primary visual cortex (V1) → secondary areas (V2 and V3) → inferotemporal cortex (V4). It is known as the ‘what’ pathway due to its involvement in object representation.
11
Q
What does the dorsal pathway in visual processing focus on?
A
The dorsal pathway goes from the primary visual cortex (V1) → secondary areas (V2 and V3) → motor perception area (V5/MT) → parietal lobe. This is the ‘where’ or ‘how’ pathway because it is involved in location, motion, and action.
12
Q
true/False: The two visual pathways process information independently and later reintegrate within a common brain region.
A
true
13
Q
A
14
Q
A
15
Q
What principles are described by the Gestalt psychologists for grouping features?
A
Gestalt psychologists described principles such as proximity, similarity, common motion, good continuation, and closure.
16
Q
Define visual acuity..
A
Visual acuity is a measure of the finest details someone can distinguish.
17
Q
What does sensitivity to contrast measure?
A
Sensitivity to contrast is the ability to perceive different intensities of light.
18
Q
What is homonymous hemianopsia and what causes it?
A
Homonymous hemianopsia is a visual field loss occurring in the same part of both visual fields due to damage beyond the optic chiasm.
19
Q
A
20
Q
What is a quadrantanopia?
A
Quadrantanopia is blindness for a specific quadrant of the visual field.
21
Q
How does the brain compensate for a visual field defect?
A
- the brain can use previous knowledge to fill in missing information
- eye movements to compensate for the missing area.
22
Q
Describe cortical blindness.
A
Cortical blindness occurs when V1 is completely destroyed, leading to the loss of the whole visual field. However, blindsight can occur where patients respond to stimuli in the damaged visual field without conscious vision of it.
23
Q
What is the phenomenon in Anton’s syndrome?
A
In Anton’s syndrome, visual anosognosia occurs where patients are cortically blind but believe they can see.
24
Q
A
25
26
27
28
Describe **Simultanagnosia.**
It is a defect in perceiving multiple objects simultaneously due to damage in the dorsal pathway.
29
30
What is **Topographical agnosia?**
It's when familiar buildings and landscapes aren't recognized.
31
Define **Associative visual agnosia.**
While a complete mental image exists, the association with knowledge about the object from memory is absent. Patients can copy a figure but can't name or categorize it.
32
What is **Optic ataxia?**
A disorder in hand coordination based on visual perception, often due to damage in the inferior parietal lobe and linked to the 'where/how' pathway.
33
Describe **Bálint's syndrome.**
It is a combination of optic ataxia, ocular apraxia, and simultanagnosia resulting from bilateral lesions in the posterior parietal lobe.
34
What is **Neglect?**
It's not a visual or visuoperceptual disorder but an attention disorder. A lesion in the parietal lobe, often on the right side, can lead to an unawareness of one side of the body and environment, typically the left.
35
How is **Neglect** manifested?
The patient can see but does not consciously perceive information from the neglected side. It affects auditory and tactile information as well.
36
.
37
How does **Auditory Localization** work?
We receive auditory input from 360 degrees. Location is determined based on differences in arrival times between the left and right ear and by analyzing the frequency of incoming sounds.
38
39
locations of the **What** and **Where** auditory pathways.
"What": auditory cortex-->temporal lobe
where: posterior parietal cortex
(precies omgekeerd aan visual where/what)
40
41
What is **Cortical Deafness**
A result of damage to the temporal lobe in both hemispheres leading to hearing impairment.
42
43
Define **Tactile Disorders.**
They relate to integrated touch, thermoception, and proprioception information. Brain damage can lead to disorders in these functions.
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45
46
Outline the journey of an odorant molecule during **Smell Perception**.
Activation by odorant molecules
Signal creation by olfactory receptors in the epithelium
Transmission to olfactory bulb
Relay to primary olfactory cortex
Connection to limbic areas like the thalamus and hippocampus, leading to emotional and memory associations.
47
Match the following disorders with their descriptions:
**1Ageusia
2Anosmia
3Phantosmia
4Gustatory agnosia**
a. Inability to recognize tastes
b. Olfactory hallucinations
c. Loss of taste
d. Loss of smell
1-c, 2-d, 3-b, 4-a
48
which statement(s) is/are true:
1 When two sensory events occur near each other in space and time, they probably belong together.
2Multisensory integration can occur even when one sense is damaged, like sight.
3Sensory events perceived at the same time likely belong together due to temporal alignment.
1,3
49
50
1Ageusia
2Hypogeusia
3Dysgeusia
4Gustatory agnosia
5Anosmia
6Hyposmia
7Phantosmia
8Olfactory agnosia
a. Inability to recognize taste
b. Inability to recognize/identify smell
c. Loss of taste
d. Loss of smell
e. Reduced taste
f. Reduced smell
g. Olfactory hallucinations
h. Change of taste
1-c, 2-e, 3-h, 4-a, 5-d, 6-f, 7-g, 8-b
51
Format: Which statement(s) is/are true?
1When two sensory events occur at the same location and time, they likely belong together due to spatial alignment.
2Temporal alignment suggests that sensory events perceived near the same time are connected.
3Damage to the insula always permits multisensory integration.
The first two are true. The last statement is false: damage to the insula can result in no integration of certain senses, like light and sound.
52
What are the three main components of phonology in the domain of **language, speech, and verbal communication?**
**Phonological word form:** where one initial sound determines the meaning (e.g. fog vs dog).
**Morphology**the form of words, distinguishing between singular and plural forms.
**Syntax:** structure of morphemes, words, and phrases to create well-formed sentences.
53
What is the **Universal grammar theory** introduced by Chomsky?
Universal grammar is a theory that posits specific grammatical rules for languages are either activated or deactivated based on input. This innate system is present in every person for every language, guiding the order of subjects, objects, and verbs in a sentence.
54
Format: Which statement(s) is/are true?
1 The Universal Grammar theory faced no opposition.
2 Large-scale longitudinal corpus analyses show that children's linguistic structures become more intricate as they grow.
3 Telegram style is a unique linguistic phenomenon found only in adults without language disorders.
Only the second statement is true. The first is false: UG had opponents like child language acquisition and evolutionary cognitive sciences. The third is false: Telegram style is also found in speakers with aphasia.
55
What are the primary linguistic levels that linguistic modalities (comprehension, production, reading, and writing) are divided into?
Semantics (meaning)
Phonology (sounds)
Morphology (word structure)
Syntax (sentence structure)
Additionally, the relationship between language expressions and specific situations is governed by pragmatics.
56
What is the **mental lexicon?**
It's a library in the mind, storing known words and their information.
57
Define **phonology.**
It deals with sound units in language, emphasizing how they are realized and how they change the meaning of words when altered.
58
What is **semantics** in linguistics?
It's how words are associated with concepts, linking them to real-world characteristics.
59
What is **morphology?**
It studies the smallest units with meaning in language, such as morphemes.
60
What does **syntax** refer to?
It's about using grammatical rules to form sentences, focusing on word categories and structure.
61
Explain **pragmatics** in linguistics.
It's the relationship between language expressions and specific contexts, including non-literal meanings.
62
What are the three components of language production?
The **conceptualizer**, the **formulator**, and the **articulators.**
63
What is the role of the **conceptualizer** in language production?
It processes non-linguistic concepts based on world knowledge.
64
How does the **formulator** assist in language production?
It prepares grammatical and phonological information using the **mental lexicon.**
65
What do **articulators** do in the speech process?
They produce internal speech, leading to pronounced words with rapid motor activity.
66
67
Which hemisphere is more involved in core language aspects?
The left hemisphere. The right focuses on prosody and pragmatics.
68
define of each type of aphasia the: characteristics: fluency (YES/NO), comprehension (YES/NO), repetition (YES/NO).
69
1 **Broca's aphasia** results in non-fluent, agrammatical language.
2 People with **Wernicke's aphasia** have difficulty in pronunciation.
3 **Conduction aphasia** patients often try to correct their language mistakes.
1 is true.
2 is false: People with Broca's aphasia have difficulty in pronunciation.
3 is true.
70
What does the term **dysarthria** refer to?
Dysarthria is a disorder of the motor system, causing difficulty in pronunciation due to muscle weakness.
71
What is the difference between **speech apraxia** and dysarthria?
**Speech apraxia** is a disorder in planning and organizing articulatory movements, while **dysarthria** results from muscle weakness affecting speech.
72
In **Transcortical aphasia: sensory/motor's sensory form**, how is the repetition of words affected?
In the sensory form of Transcortical aphasia: sensory/motor, repetition of words is intact, sometimes even to the extent that the patient repeats what has just been said (**echolalia**).
73
Format: Which Statement(s) is/are True?
1 Anomic aphasia involves difficulties in finding words during both writing and speaking.
2 Anomic aphasia involves impaired comprehension of words.
3 Repetition and reading aloud in Anomic aphasia are always smooth and effortless.
1 is true.
2 is false: Word comprehension in Anomic aphasia is intact.
3 is false: Repetition and reading aloud can be challenging.
74
What are the primary disorders associated with aphasia concerning articulation?
Answer: Aphasia is often accompanied by **Dysarthria **(a motor articulation disorder) and **speech apraxia** (an issue with planning and executing speech movements).
75
Disorders and their definitions:
1Dyslexia/alexia
2 Agraphia
Definitions:
a. Reading is impaired.
b. Writing is impaired.
1-a, 2-b
76
Format: Which Statement(s) is/are True?
1Surface dyslexia/agraphia implies the ability to read and write irregularly spelled words.
2 Regular written words are more often encountered in deep dyslexia/agraphia.
1 is false: Surface dyslexia/agraphia involves struggles with irregularly spelled words.
2 is true.
77
What are the characteristics of **Phonological dyslexia/agraphia?**
Phonological dyslexia/agraphia, non-existent words cannot be read or written by the patient, and it becomes challenging to read or write new words.
78
What is the primary impairment associated with **Neglect dyslexia?**
Neglect dyslexia is characterized by an impairment in identifying graphemes at the beginning or end of words.
78
Describe the issue faced by individuals with **Attentional dyslexia.**
Individuals with Attentional dyslexia have difficulty naming individual letters, especially when they are combined with other letters.
79
From a language processing model perspective, what does the model proposed by Young (1988) primarily illustrate?
a) Phonetic processing of language
b) The emotional response to language
c) Four modalities of language: auditory comprehension, written comprehension (reading), spoken production, and written production (writing)
d) The impact of environmental factors on language processing
c
80
What does **dynamic aphasia** focus on and why is it crucial in the study of aphasia syndromes?
Dynamic aphasia emphasizes the importance of spontaneous speech, or how fluently a person speaks in casual settings. It is crucial because translating thoughts into articulated messages involves several linguistic levels.
81
What pattern of difficulties is observed in patients with **dynamic aphasia?**
Patients with dynamic aphasia have difficulty initiating speech. However, they typically retain abilities in language comprehension, naming, and imitation.
82
According to the Wernicke-Lichtheim model, what is the role of the inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area) in language?
The inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area) is involved in language production.
83
Question: Based on recent research, why are the terms 'Broca's area' and 'Wernicke's area' considered outdated?
The terms 'Broca's area' and 'Wernicke's area' are considered outdated because newer research suggests a shift towards viewing the brain's language functions in terms of well-defined anatomical structures, like gyri, rather than the one-on-one relationships these terms suggest.
83
Format: Which statement(s) is/are true?
1Persistent language production disorders after a stroke are primarily predicted by lesions in the white matter tracts.
2Chronic aphasia is due to injuries in the grey matter itself.
3Electrocortical stimulation (DES) has played a significant role in enhancing our understanding of language and brain locations.
1 and 3 are true
2 is false: Chronic aphasia is due to injuries to specific areas such as the white matter tracts, not just the grey matter.
84
85
Which statement(s) is/are true?
1A person's performance on a neuropsychological test is heavily influenced by the motor system's functionality.
2Motor disorders post-brain injury can skew test results and mask actual cognitive abilities.
3Sensory processes influence motor actions, and both depend on embodied cognition.
All statements (1, 2, and 3) are true.
86
How do muscles usually work in pairs?
Muscles typically function in **agonist-antagonist pairs.**
87
How does the spinal cord contribute to muscle activity?
Muscles receive signals from motor neurons in the ventral part of the spinal cord. These motor neurons get information from muscle spindles about the muscle's contraction state and coordinate with other motor neurons in the spinal cord.
88
Which muscles are most vulnerable to disturbances after a brain injury and why?
**Distal muscles**, like those in the hand and fingers, are more vulnerable because they're controlled by the crossed lateral corticospinal projections originating from the contralateral primary motor cortex.
89
Match the following terms with their descriptions:
1Muscle spindles
2Homunculus
3Distal muscles
4Proximal muscles
a. Muscles of the hand, fingers, and feet, vulnerable post brain injury
b. Contains a representation of the body in the primary motor cortex
c. Sensory receptors within muscles, informing contraction state
d. Muscles of the trunk, upper arms, and thighs
Answer Key:
1-c, 2-b, 3-a, 4-d
90
What are the five subcortical brain structures that make up the basal ganglia?
The five structures are
the caudate nucleus,
putamen (together referred to as the striatum),
globus pallidus,
substantia nigra, and the
subthalamic nucleus.
91
How does the striatum process information in the basal ganglia?
he striatum receives input from various motor cortical areas. This information is then sent to frontal cortical areas through both a direct and an indirect route, each having different effects on movement.
92
Name 3 parts of the cerebellum that each have a specific function in movement.
1. **vestibulocerebellum,**
2. **spinocerebellum**,
3. **neocerebellum**,
93
match 4 possible consequences of damage to the cerebellum with their description:
1. **cerebellar ataxia**
2. **dysmetria**
3. **intentional tremor**,
4. **dysdiadochokinesia**
a. (difficulty in making fast, alternating hand movements).
b.(incorrect timing of hand/eye movements),
c.tremor
d.(uncoordinated movement),
1d 2b 3c 4a
94
Match the following parts of the cerebellum with their functions:
**1Vestibulocerebellum
2Spinocerebellum
3Neocerebellum**
a. Coordinates limbs and trunk muscles during locomotion
b. Adjusts movements based on head and eye position changes
c. Plans and executes movements by receiving info from the cortex
1-b, 2-a, 3-c
95
Describe the difference between the **direct** and **indirect** routes in the basal ganglia.
The direct route has an activating effect on movement and is characterized by activation of the frontal cortical areas. In contrast,
the indirect route has an inhibitory effect on movement. Parkinson’s disease, for example, sees reduced activation of the direct route due to dopamine deficiency in the striatum, causing lack of movement. Conversely, in Huntington’s disease, activation in the indirect route is reduced, leading to excess involuntary movements.
96
Define **Mirror neurons** and their significance.
exist in the premotor and posterior parietal cortex, active during both action and observation. They aid in learning, social cognition, and empathy.
97
How do **Forward models** function in motor actions? What does it give an explanation for?
Forward models predict an action's outcomes using an internal motor system model, explaining phenomena like reduced self-tickling sensation.
98
Describe the importance of **Representation of movement goals.**
It integrates sensory and visual perception for effective interaction with the environment, with the **ventro-dorsal pathway** crucial for spatial perception.
99
Differentiate between **body image** and **body schema**.
Body image is a conscious, stable representation
body schema is an unconscious, continuously updated model based on sensory data.
100
what is the **peripersonal space**
It's the space around the body, crucial for protective actions, maintaining social distance, and determining reachable objects.
101
Define **Apraxia.**
Apraxia is the inability to perform specific actions due to sensory, motor, or cognitive deficits, affecting the comprehension, recognition, and implementation of the task.
102
Which brain regions, when damaged, can result in **apraxia?**
The left parietal lobe, right parietal regions, temporal and frontal cortex, and even subcortical lesions of the white matter can result in apraxia.
103
Differentiate between **Ideational apraxia** and **Ideomotor apraxia.**
Ideational apraxia involves a disorder in the conceptual representation of movements, impairing tool use and movement sequences. In contrast,
Ideomotor apraxia retains the representation of movements but affects their execution due to deficits in premotor and primary motor regions.
104
which statement(s) is/are true?
1The functions of certain tools are unrecognizable to patients with Ideomotor apraxia.
2Apraxia only results from lesions in the left hemisphere.
3There's a direct visual route in the Liepmann model converting visual stimulus directly into movement.
1 is false: Patients with Ideomotor apraxia can recognize the function but can't use them correctly.
2 is false: Apraxia can also result from right hemisphere, temporal, frontal, and subcortical lesions.
3 is true.
105
Pair the following terms with their explanations:
1Inferior parietal lesions
2Frontal lesions
3Dorso-dorsal pathway
4Ventral pathway
5Temporal lobe damage (connected to the ventral pathway)
a. Disruptions in distinguishing and recognizing gestures.
b. Disruptions in movement production.
c. Impairments in the imitation of meaningless gestures.
d. Affects the pantomime of object use, connecting the inferior parietal cortex to the ventral premotor cortex and pars opercularis.
e. Severe apraxia involving disrupted object use.
Answer Key:
1-a, 2-b, 3-c, 4-d, 5-e
106
What is **Optic ataxia,** and what is its primary symptom?
Optic ataxia is the inability to make coordinated or coherent movements relative to what is being looked at. The main symptom is not being able to reach or point at an object in the peripheral visual field.
107
What characterizes the **Alien hand syndrome (AHS)** and where can it occur after injury?
Alien hand syndrome (AHS) is characterized by involuntary, seemingly autonomous movements of the affected hand that go against the patient's reported intention. It can occur after both left and right hemispheric injuries, especially if the corpus callosum is also involved.
108
Pair the following terms with their explanations:
**Frontal AHS
Posterior AHS**
Grasping reflex in AHS
Mirror movements in AHS
a. Characterized by a sense of alienation, less complex movements, and self-stimulation of the affected side.
b. Movements where the two hands must perform the same action.
c. Result of injury to the medial side, characterized by the grasping reflex and compulsive tactile exploration.
d. The alien hand automatically grabs objects in the environment.
1-c, 2-a, 3-d, 4-b
109
In which scenario will only the left hand be impaired in **Alien hand syndrome?**
The left hand will be impaired in Alien hand syndrome only if the corpus callosum is damaged.
110
# Werkgroep
Vision is one of the five major sensory systems. Name the other four:
Auditory (hearing)
Olfactory (smell)
Gustatory (taste)
Somatosensory (touch and body sensations)
111
# werkgroep
a. The primary and secondary cortical areas for vision are in the
………………………. lobe
Occipital
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# werkgroep
The primary and secondary cortex for somatosensation are in the
………………………… lobe.
parietal lobe
113
The primary and secondary auditory cortical areas for audiation are in the
………………………… lobe.
temporal
114
. Why are these areas named ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’?
The terms "primary" and "secondary" in the context of sensory cortical areas refer to the hierarchy and sequence of processing within the brain:
115
# werkgroep
What is the common location of damage in people with prosopagnosia?
**fusiform gyrus**
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