Wk 8 - Developmental Issues in Music Psychology

Question 1

Lamont (2008)

Answer 1

experience sampling’ with 28 families with 3-4 year olds

38% of episodes involved music

30% of these involved other entertainment

Only one episode of music listening without any other activity

Only 19% where no music for 2 hours

Only 1 of 49 car journeys without music

15.6% of episodes involved making music (mostly singing)

Most music (over 82%) recorded

Most common style was ‘children’s music’

Half of these were TV or film

Most of these chosen by the children

Only two episodes of music chosen by fathers

Question 2

music in the womb

Answer 2

foetus can hear 3 months before birth (Tan et al, 2009)

Wilkin (1995): response more to piano than choral or rock music

Zimmer et al (1982): stronger effects for mother’s preferred music

Question 3

Hepper, 1991 Neighbours study

Answer 3

Neighbours theme tune produced effects in 2-4 day old neonates

Question 4

Neonatal musical development

Answer 4

Infants assessed by ‘head turn’ towards sound source

Turn to rattle after 2-4 days

Accurate turns by 6 months

At 7 months can find objects in dark by sound (Stack et al, 1989)

At 3-6 months, can be taught to sing back specific pitches within 70% of quarter-tone (Kessen et al, 1979)

By 7 months, can recognise specific Mozart piano sonata after 2-week daily exposure (Saffran et al, 2000)

Question 5

parent-child interaction

Answer 5

11-12 weeks: preference for human voice

14 weeks: preference for mother’s voice

Babbling at 6-8 months as “protomusical behaviour” (Clarke et al, 2010)

Question 6

importance of ‘Motherese’

Answer 6

has musical qualities (pitch contour) and is preferred by infants

Heightened emotional response (EEG evidence)

Infant-directed singing also preferred

• slower, higher, expressive
• works better if actual child is present

Question 7

Moog (1976) - physical responses to music

Answer 7

3-6 months: active preference for music, with ‘pleasure and astonishment’

Body sway and bouncing, but not rhythmic until 12 months

Then: head nods, knees, feet etc.

Co-ordinated with music by 18 months

Question 8

song learning

Answer 8

Children able to pitch notes by 18 months

Some degree of rhythmic organisation at 2 years

Question 9

what are ‘potpourri’ songs

Answer 9

mix and match of loads of different songs

Question 10

Davidson et al (1981) taught song to 5 year olds
4 phases of acquisition:

Answer 10

Topological (outline, including most words)

Rhythmic surface (on drum)

Pitch contour

Key stability (in tune)

Question 11

different types of Singing ability (Roberts, 1972; Jones 1977)

Answer 11

In tune
Transposers
Random
Droners

Question 12

in tune

Answer 12

few pitch errors

Question 13

tranposers

Answer 13

correct melody but at wrong pitch

Question 14

random

Answer 14

correct contour but with pitch errors

Question 15

droners

Answer 15

largely monotonous

Question 16

what is the matthew effect

Answer 16

as rich get richer the poor get poorer

those with initial advantages improve

those without advantages struggle to improve

Question 17

Welch (1986)

Answer 17

not categories but a continuum

children’s singing thought of as a developmental process

It is possible, with training, to move across the ‘types’

32% of 7-year-olds singing out of tune, but even ‘droners’ improved after training

Question 18

Sloboda et al (1994)

Answer 18

having a spectrum of ability - common in the west

problems with ‘folk psychology’ of musical ability

Assumption that innate factors determine ability is challenged by:

• Cross-cultural differences (e.g., Nigerian study)
• Relative scarcity of early indicators of ability
• Poor evidence of heritability (Howe & Sloboda, 1991)

-Specific skills can be learned (like absolute pitch)

Question 19

musical ability continued

Answer 19

Also, problems with musical education founded on false assumptions

Assessment is subjective and erratic

Manturszewska (1970): poor reliability of expert judgments

Students penalised on impressions
(e.g. not expressive enough)

Teachers’ beliefs such as: ‘you either have it or you don’t’

These feed into students’ own beliefs, and affect motivation

Question 20

Howe & Sloboda (1991)

Answer 20

interviewed Chetham’s music students (10-17 yrs)

36% of parents ‘not interested in music’

Only 6% had parents who were music professionals

43% influenced by older siblings (often envious)

Most cited early pleasure of listening to classical music in family home

Question 21

criticisms of Howe & Sloboda (1991) work

Answer 21

False nature-nurture dichotomy (Davies, 1994)

Broad trends in inheritance don’t explain every individual case

Howe and Sloboda’s (1991) data offer weak counter-evidence (Gagne, 1999)

Lack of parental musicality suggests that individual
differences more important

Also, some grandparents cited as musical (not investigated)

Question 22

Barros et al (2017) ‘M factor’

Answer 22

large battery of measures evaluating ability

6-13 year olds in Brazil (N > 1000) tested on pitch, contour, scale, beat, dynamics and timbre

Includes many diverse forms of music, inc. atonal

Single factor solution the best ‘fit’ for the data

Subscales ‘unreliable’

Authors suggest this works like Spearman’s g in intelligence