כליה Flashcards

(237 cards)

1
Q

Glomerular filtration pressures?

A

Hydrostatic-
afferent arteriole- 55mmHg
fluid pressure created by back propagation of water in capsule of bowmen- (-15)mmHg

[colloid- (-30)mmHg]

net filtration pressure-10mmHg

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2
Q

clearance definition?

A

volume of plasma from which a substance is completely removed per unit time

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3
Q

stages of chronic kidney disease?

A

stage 1: Kidney damage with normal or increased GFR (>90 mL/min/1.73 m 2)

stage 2: Mild reduction in GFR 60-89

Stage 3: Moderate reduction in GFR 30-59

stage 4: severe reduction in GFR 15-29

chronic renal failure (end stage) GFR <10-15

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4
Q

GFR measurement?

A

inulin

nuclear medicine lab

BUN-Blood Urea Nitrogen

Creatinine

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5
Q

inulin?

A

100% clearance in urine
no reabsorption
no metabolism

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6
Q

nuclear medicine lab?

A

can differentiate between two kidney

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7
Q

BUN-Blood Urea Nitrogen?

A

urea production rate not constant

proximal massive reabsorption

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8
Q

Creatinine?

A

serum creatinine
men 0.74 to 1.35 mg/dL (65.4 to 119.3mmoles/L)
women 0.59 to 1.04 mg/dL (52.2 to 91.9 mmoles/L)

100% renal clearance- GFR dependent
fast buildup at low kidney function, almost no reduction from basal line at higher kideny function

secreted in proximal tubuli- Cr.clearance> GFR

serum lvl- normal distribute across population
thus steady-state indicator of function,
and is not a sensitive marker of injury

women:
Ccr- 95 ± 20 ml/min

men:
Ccr- 125 ± 25 ml/min

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9
Q

Estimated Cr clearance?

A

Cockcroft-Gault formula?

       (140 - age) x (IBW in kg) Est. CCr = ------------------------------ [x 0.85 women]          
                    72 x Pcr (gr/dl)

IBW = ideal body weight

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10
Q

Tenofovir renal dosing?

A

by Creatinine Clearance

50>
300mg every 24H

30-49>
300mg every 48H

10-29>
300mg every 72-96

less than 10, no hemodialysis- no recommendations

less than 10, with hemodialysis
300mg every 7d or total of 12h dialysis

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11
Q

Gabapentin renal dosing?

A

by Creatinine Clearance

30-59 700mg

30-49> 300mg ever 48H

10-29> 300mg ever 72-96

less than 10, no hemodialysis- no recommendations

less than 10, with hemodialysis> 300mg ever 7d or total of 12h dialysis

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12
Q

Total body water composition and distribution?

A
  1. TBW = 60% ~ 42 Liter

1.1 ICF= 66%
~ 28 Liter

1.2 ECF= 33%
~ 14 Liter

  1. 2.1 ISF = 3/4 ECF
    (10. 5 L)
  2. 2.1 IVF = 1/4 ECF
    (3. 5 L)
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13
Q

Posm – Plasma Osmolarity calculation?

A

Posm = 2(Na) + Glucose/18 + BUN/2.8
(in mg/dl)
שאר עולם

Posm = 2(Na) + Glucose + BUN
(in milimol/liter)
הדסה

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14
Q

effective blood volume definition?

A

blood volume on the arterial side of the circulation

part of IVF

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15
Q

Volume Regulation physiology?

A

Renal sodium handling
Na excretion stand in direct proportion to EBV (GFR)

Sympathetic tone (reveres proportion to EBV, carotic bodeis)
RAAS (reveres proportion to EBV, Afferent arteriole)
ANP (direct proportion to EBV)

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16
Q

Osmoregulation physiology?

A

Normal plasma osmolality = 275 to 290mosmol/kg.

osmolarity sensors in anterior hypothalamus:
ADH > thirst sensitivity

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17
Q

Volume/Osmoregulation in CHF?

A

blood concentrated in veins 🡪 EBV down
🡪 kidney + carotid bodies sensing 🡪 RAAS < ADH secretion 🡪 Posm down but EBV still down 🡪 ADH secretion (although low osmolarity)
EBV signal overcomes the Osmolarity signal
PNa is low but the Total Body Na is high = Edema

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18
Q

Hyponatremia definition?

A

Plasma Na+ concentration < 135 meq/L

usually reflects impaired renal Water excretion

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19
Q

situations of Hyponatremia with normal H2O excretion?

A
Primary polydipsia
Reset Osmostat (pregnancy)
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20
Q

Isotonic (280-290) Hyponatremia mechanism?

A

HyperProteinemia, Hyperlipidemia 🡪 H2O fraction of TBW lowers + hyponatremia 🡪 [Na] is kept normal.

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21
Q

Hypertonic (<295) Hyponatremia mechanism?

A
  1. Posm = 2(Na) + Glucose/18 + BUN/2.8 (in mg/dl)
    NA has the major influence but not a single player.

diabetes 🡪 Posm of blood is up (Hypertonic) 🡪 water moves form ISF TO ECF 🡪 [Na] goes down 🡪 “pseudohyponatremia” / dilutional hyponatremia

A 2.4-meq/L reduction in the plasma sodium concentration for every 100-mg/dL elevation in the plasma glucose

  1. mannitol
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22
Q

hypotonic hyponatremia (remember it represents concentration and not total mg) mechanism and Treatment?

A

hypovolemia-
TBW↓ Total Na ↓↓
U[na]> 20- renal losses, diuretic excess
U[na]< 10- extra renal losses, diarrhea/ vomiting
Give Salt & water == 0.9% saline

euvolemia-
TBW↑ Total Na –
U[na]> 20- SIADH
Vasopressin receptor antagonists

hypervolemia-
TBW↑↑ Total Na↑
U[na]> 20- Renal failure (acute/ chronic)
U[na]< 10- cardiac failure (keep secrete ADH)
Diuretics, Low salt diet

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23
Q

SIADH - Criteria?

A

Hyponatremia & Hypoosmolarity
Uosm inappropriatly high>100 mosmol/kg
Una >40 mosmol/kg*
Normovolemia

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24
Q

SIADH - ETIOLOGY?

A

Increased production-

Neuropsychiatric disorders 
Drugs- thiazides 
Pulmonary Disease
Post operative
Severe nausea 

Ectopic production (Carcinoma)

Exogenous administration (Oxytocin; Vasopressin)

etc…

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25
Symptoms of Hyponatremia?
intracellular volume varies inversely with the P(Na) Brain Edema: Nausea Malaise Headache Lethargy 🡪 Seizures 🡪 Coma
26
Treatment of Hyponatremia – symptomatic patient?
Calculate Sodium deficit Do not attempt to raise PNa to normal Do not attempt to raise PNa quickly Hourly evaluate clinical & biochemical status
27
Calculation of sodium deficit?
Na+ deficit = TBW x (Na target-plasma Na+) TBW- men 0.6/ female 0.5 NA target: 125
28
hyponatremia rate of correction?
asymptomatic- less than 8 on the first day (24 hours) Less than 18 meq/L over the first 2 days 0.5meq/L/h symptomatic- 1.5 to 2 meq/L/h for 3 to 4 h or until the severe neurological symptoms have abated additional rescue (till 8meq/L) in remaining time (<24h) take fucking re-measurments every 1-2h to ensure right correction
29
osmotic demyelination pathophysiology?
hyponatremia 🡪 low osmolarity 🡪 brain edema 🡪 rapid adaptation of brain, loss of Na, K, Cl 🡪 slow adaptation, loss of organic osmolytes 🡪 ICF reduction 🡪 rapid external correction (therapy) 🡪 osmotic shrinkage of axons
30
osmotic demyelination symptoms?
paraparesis or quadriparesis, dysarthria, dysphagia, and coma; seizures also may occur but are less common.
31
hypernatremia (remember it represents concentration and not total mg) mechanism and Treatment?
``` hypovolemia- TBW↓↓ Total Na ↓ U[na]> 20- renal losses: loop diuretic U[na]< 20- extra renal losses: diarrhea, fistula. sweating, burns correct of water deficit (5% dextrose) ``` ``` euvolemia- TBW↓ Total Na -- U[na] variable renal losses: diabetes, hypodipsia extrarenal losses: respiratory, dermal correct of water deficit ``` hypervolemia- TBW↑ Total Na↑↑ U[na]> 20- sodium gain: primary, hyperaldo, cushing's, removal of NA: furosemide Hypernatremia usually dose not develop unless there is limited access to H2O
32
Diabetes Insipidus physiology?
Central: complete or partial failure of ADH secretion Nephrogenic: renal response to ADH is diminished or absent
33
Central Diabetes Insipidus etiology?
Idiopathic – familial (30%)
34
Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus Etiology?
1. Decreased water permeability of the collecting tubule a. Congenital b. Hypercalcemia c. Hypokalemia d. Drugs (lithium) e. Sjogren’s syndrom f. Amyloidosis 2. Interference with countercurrent mechanism a. Osmotic diuresis b. Loop diuretics c. Renal failure d. Hypercalcemia e. Hypokalemia f. Sickle cell anemia 3. Increased peripheral degradation of ADH (pregnancy) 4. Unknown mechanism
35
CDI vs NDI?
Uosm should be ~800-1400 mosmol/kg If PNa>150 meq/L but Uosm<800 mosmol/kg= There is at least a partial defect in ADH ADH will increase the Uosm only in CDI
36
Symptoms of Hypernatremia?
intracellular volume varies inversely with the P(Na) Brain dihydration: Nausea Malaise Headache Lethargy 🡪 Seizures 🡪 Coma
37
Treatment of Hypernatremia
1. Calculate Water deficit 2. Rate of correction 0.5 meq/L/h (12meq/L/24h) 3. Hourly evaluate clinical & biochemical status H2O deficit = TBW x ((Plasma Na-Target Na)/ Target Na) NA target is 140 TBW= Weight x 0.5 male Weight x 0.4 female shock correction first to be corrected== Isotonic saline should be used if the patient is hypotensive
38
polyuria definition?
Urine volume > 3 liters per day
39
polyuria etiology?
water diuresis =Uosm< 250: primary- intravenous infusion of dilute solution CDI ``` solute diuresis= Uosm> 300: saline loading post obstructive (BPH) hyperglycemia high protein tube feeding ```
40
polyuria diagnosis?
1. Patient history 2. Estimate volume status 3. Measure Glucose level in plasma (for DI) 4. Plasma osmolarity 5. Urine osmolarity 6. If DI is suspected but no hyperosmolarity is present, perform water restriction test: a. induce hyperosmolarity to stimulate maximal ADH secretion at 295osm (withhold water) b. give exogenous ADH c. urine osmolarity goes all the way up (1000+) + no exo.ADH response = normal urine osmolarity goes half the way up (600+) -+ exo.ADH response= partial N/CDI urine osmolarity does not go way up (0) -+ exo.ADH response= complete N/CDI
41
Na+-K+-ATPase Pump regulation?
K+ balance Insulin- upregulate ,naturally coupled with dietary K+ load. Catecholamines- b2 activate, a-receptors inhibit availability of ATP. chronic diseases the pump activity is down regulated = hyperkalemia if renal failure diminishes K+ excretion
42
exercise influence on Distribution of K+?
muscle work 🡪 depolarization 🡪 k move to ECF | muscle work 🡪 ATP depletion 🡪 k move to ECF
43
Extracellular pH influence on Distribution of K+?
entrance of H+ to cells and exit of K+ and Na+ EXEPT: K+ losses accompany the acidosis: RTA or diarrhea organic acids production: lactate, ketoacids
44
Hyperosmolarity influence on Distribution of K+?
passive K+ movement out by channels (osmotic gradient) | Solvent Drag: Water drag K+
45
Rapid increase in cell production influence on Distribution of K+?
shift of K+ into the new cells: severe megaloblastic anemia G-CSF (neutropenia) Refeeding Syndrome
46
Tubular Handling of K+?
filtered in the glomerulus, Most reabsorbed in the proximal tubule and loop of Henle. secretion- distal tubule (principal cells, ROMK) and connecting segment and outer medullary collecting tubule reabsorption- distal tubule segments (intercalated cells, H/K antiporter)
47
Regulation of K+ Secretion?
ALDOSTERONE number of open channels of luminal membrane ↑ Na+/K+-ATPase activity ↑ ``` plasma [K] ↑- Electrical gradient↑ Na+-K+-ATPase activity↑ aldosterone secretion ↑ H+/K+-ATPase ↓ ``` Distal Sodium Delivery ↑(principal cells, ENAC) Distal Flow Rate↑ 🡪 keep gradient at high lvl 🡪secretion ↑
48
Periodic paralysis definition?
recurrent episodes of muscle weakness or paralysis [AD] or aquired α-subunit of the dihydropyridine-sensitive calcium channel defect 🡪 Increased K+ Entry into Cells
49
Hypokalemia: Increased Gastrointestinal Losses mechanism?
decreased intake or hyperaldosteronism accompany the GI loss and aggravate the hypokalemia Vomiting\gastric fluids- -If vomiting is of biliary or pancreatic fluids -Hypovolemia induced hyperaldostronism Distal Sodium Delivery: - increased HCO3- in urine, delivered to distal tubule with Na+, reabsorption of Na and secretion of K - contributes to hypokalemia through K+ movement into cells
50
Bartter’s syndrome in hypokalemia?
Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransporter mutation
51
Gitelman’s syndrome in hypokalemia?
thiazide sensitive Na+-Cl- cotransporter mutation 🡪 less activation 🡪 less Na+ secretion in distal tubule 🡪 less K excretion hypermagnesuria hypocalciuria.
52
inhibition of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase mechanism of hypokalemia? (licorice ingestion)
11β-hydroxysteroid converts cortisol to cortisone. inhibition. cortisol ↑ (cortisol have same affinity of aldosterone to mineralo-corticoid receptor in principal cells) 🡪 ENAC↑ Na+/K+-ATPase ↑
53
Glucocorticoid Remediable Hyperaldosteronism (GRA) | mechanism of hypokalemia?
translocation 🡪 chimeric gene 🡪 ACTH (cortisol regulator regularly) regulation of secretion of Aldosterone treatment: give glucosteroids to inhibit ACTH secretion
54
Liddle’s syndrome definition?
[AD] activating mutation of ENaC 🡪 Na+ reabsorption ↑ 🡪 gradient ↑ 🡪 hypokalemia mimics primary hyperaldo – hypertension, hypokalemia and alkalosis. but: aldosteron↓ renin↓ treatment: 1. amiloride- Blocks ENAC 2. not spironolactone (ARBs/ACEs)!!! Liddle's syndrome is not mediated by aldosterone.
55
Amphotericin B hypokalemia mechanism?
tubuli injury 🡪 cell membrane destroyed 🡪 solvents go to waste renal failure
56
Hypomagnesemia induced hypokalemia mechanism?
ROMK naturally inhibited by Mg+2🡪 less Mg+2🡪 less inhibition 🡪 K enters cells
57
RTA induced hypokalemia mechanism?
type 1 (distal)- impaired hydrogen ion secretion in the distal nephron (thus K+ wasting, H+/K+atpase) - Decreased net activity of the proton pump - Increased hydrogen ion permeability of the luminal membrane Proximal (type 2) RTA is characterized by a decrease in proximal bicarbonate (HCO3 ion) absorptive capacity 🡪 metabolic acidosis diminish proximal sodium reabsorption 🡪 may be sufficient to cause some hypovolemia and secondary hyperaldosteronism 🡪 sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the cortical collecting tubule 🡪alkali is administered 🡪 Increased distal tubule delivery of sodium, bicarbonate, and water 🡪 modest hypovolemia 🡪 hyperaldosteronism 🡪 potassium secretion in the cortical collecting tubule
58
Hypokalemia: Symptoms?
``` Muscle weakness or paralysis. Cardiac arrhythmias. Rhabdomyolysis. Renal dysfunction: -Impaired concentrating ability. -Increased ammonia production. -Impaired urinary acidification. -Increased bicarbonate reabsorption. -Renal insufficiency ```
59
Hypokalemia: ECG?
``` ST depression. Decreased amplitude of T wave. Increased amplitude of U wave. Prolonged PR interval. Widened QRS complex. ``` Polymorphic VT – torsade de pointes.
60
Hypokalemia - Diagnosis?
history Physical examination: estimate blood pressure. Acid base status. Urinary K+ excretion: - 24 hour urine Collection: >25 mEq/day suggest at least contribution of a renal source. - Urinary [K+]/[Cr]: <13 mEq/g suggest extra-renal cause. - TTKG: ratio of luminal K+ concentration at the end of the CCD to plasma K+ would help in assessing whether K+ secretion\retention is adequate.
61
Hypokalemia: Treatment?
food KCl: I.V- very slowly up to 20 mEq/h, and at low concentration up to 60 mEq/l (if not high extracellular K will cause arrhythmias) orally- can cause pill esophagitis and gastric ulcers. preferred unless severe hypokalemia or CI.
62
Hyperkalemia: Etiology?
Increased intake. shift of K+ from ICF to ECF. - Pseudohyperkalemia (lab). - Metabolic acidosis. - Insulin deficiency (DKA). - Hyperosmolarity (DKA). - Tissue catabolism. - β-adrenergic blockade. - Severe exercise - Digitalis Overdose. - Periodic Paralysis. - Post Cardiac Surgery. - Succinylcholine – induces cell membrane depolarization. Decreased urinary excretion. - Renal failure. - EBV depletion. - Low aldosterone or disturbances in RAAS. - Type 4 renal tubular acidosis. - Selective potassium secretory defect.
63
Pseudohypoaldosteronism (Type 1) induced hyperkalemia?
Resistance to aldosterone Acquired – mostly in tubulointerstitial diseases of the kidney Type 4 RTA. Congenital – rare!
64
Pseudohypoaldosteronism (Type 2) induced hyperkalemia?
(Gordon Syndrome) the opposite to gitelman's syndrome Mutation regulatory proteins (WNK1 or WNK4) 🡪 Increased activation of the NCC in the distal convoluted tubule 🡪 Na+↓ in distal tubule 🡪 excretion of K+ ↓ Thiazides effective
65
disturbance in RAAS axis?
``` impaired renin release- NSAIDS beta blocker cyclosporine diabetes elders ``` renin inhibitors ACE inhibitors ARBs impaired aldosterone metabolism- Heparin aldosteron receptor blockers- spironolactone eplerenone sodium channel blocker- amiloride triamterene trimethoprim
66
Hyperkalemia: ECG?
progression by order: 1. Peaked, narrowed T waves. 2. Short QT interval & prolongation of PR interval. 3. Loss of P wave. 4. Widening of QRS complex. 5. Sine-wave pattern (QRS complex merges with the T wave).
67
Hyperkalemia treatment?
1. Antagonism of membrane instability: (and thus prevent arrhythmias): I.V calcium gluconate 2. increase K+ entry into cells: Glucose and insulin IV. β2 adrenergic agonists (Ventolin) NaHCO3. ``` 3. Remove excess K+ Diet. Cation exchange resin: sodium polystyrene sulfate (kayexalate), Patiromer, Zirconium cyclosilicate. Diuretics. Dialysis. ``` Be ready with external pacemaker\defibrillator.
68
pH calculation?
-log[H+] For 0.1 increase in pH (>7.45)– multiply 40nM by 0.8 For 0.1 decrease in pH (<7.35)- multiply 40nM by 1.2 [H+]=24*Pco2/ [HCO3-]
69
Chemical Buffering?
Extracellular HCO3- + H+ 🡪 H2CO3 HPO4-2 + H+ 🡪 H2PO4-1 Protein- + H+ 🡪 ProteinH (Albumin) Intracellular Protein- + H+ 🡪 ProteinH (Hemoglobin) organic and inorganic phosphates ``` Bone NaHCO3- + H+ 🡪 H2CO3 + Na + KHCO3- + H+ 🡪 H2CO3 + K + CaCO3- + 2H+ 🡪 H2CO3 + Ca +2 CaHPO4- + H+ 🡪 H2PO4- + -Ca +2 ``` ~ 40% of acute acid load is buffered by the Bone. More in chronic acidosis
70
H excretion (general)?
Tmax for HCO3- reabsorption is 26 meq/L proximal tubule- 3500-4400mmon/day of bicarbonate reabsorption CA2 🡪 bicarbonate move to interstitium by natrium bicarbonate cotransporter- 1 on basolateral 🡪 H move to lumen by NHExchanger-1 🡪 CA4 on brush border produce Carbonic acid 🡪 co2 + h20 🡪 co2 moves back to tubuli cells through membrane cortical collecting tubule- 50-150 mmon/day Of H+ excretion (from non-volitile acids) intercalated alfa cell CA2 🡪 bicarbonate move to interstitium by natrium AnionExchanger1 🡪 H move to lumen by Hatpase + H/K antiporter 🡪 H buffered with NH3 or HPO4
71
respiratory acidosis buffering?
intracellular RBC buffering 🡪 CO2 enters RBC 🡪 CA2 produce carbonic acid 🡪 H connects with negative Hb 🡪 HCO3 moves to blood or stays inside RBC Acute- For every 10mmHg increase in PCO2 there is an increase of 1-1.5 meq/L of HCO3- chronic (3-5d, synthesis of proteins)- For each 10 mmHg increase in PCO2, an increase of 3.5 meq/L of HCO3- is expected
72
Respiratory Alkalosis buffering?
release of H+ from intracellular proteins (hemoglobin mainly) Acute- mainly from intracellular buffers. For every 10mmHg decrease in PCO2, a decrease of 2 meq/L in HCO3- is expected. Chronic- For every 10 mmHg decrease in PCO2, a decrease of 4-5 meq/L in HCO3- is expected .
73
Respiratory Alkalosis Symptoms?
Headaches, Light-headedness, altered consciousness albumin releases H+ 🡪 connects with Ca+2 🡪 hypocalcemia 🡪 Paresthesia, cramps and carpopedal spasm more common in acute respiratory alkalosis than in chronic
74
Metabolic Acidosis Compensation?
For every decrease of 1 meq/L of HCO3-, a decrease of 1.1-1.3 mmHg in PCO2 is expected. proximal tubule production of NH3 ↑ distal tubule secretion of H+ titrated by NH3 ↑
75
Metabolic Alkalosis Compensation?
For every increase of 1 meq/L of HCO3-, an increase of 0.7-0.8 mmHg in PCO2 is expected proximal tubule re-absorption of HCO3- ↓ distal tubule H+ secretion ↓
76
Metabolic Acidosis Etiology?
Normal Anion Gap: 1. Diminished H+ excretion ``` Type 1 (distal) Tubular Acidosis (RTA) Hypoaldostronism (type 4 RTA) Renal failure ``` 2. Increased HCO3- loss ``` Gastrointestinal Diarrhea Pancreatic, Biliary Ureterosigmoidostomy Cholestiramine ``` Renal Type 2 (proximal) RTA Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors Increased Anion Gap: 1.Increased H+ load Lactic acidosis Ketoacidosis Ingestions: ASA, methanol, metformin
77
blood Anion Gap?
Anion Gap = [Na+ + K+] – [Cl- + HCO3-] = Un-Measured Anion - Un-Measured Cations Normal Values 15-17 meq/L if calculating K+ Normal Values 10-12 ,eq/L if not adding K+ In metabolic acidosis: if HCO3- ↓ and AG is normal than Cl had to ↑
78
RTA?
Type 1 – Distal RTA Type 2 – Proximal RTA Type 3 – Type 1 +Type 2 RTA Type 4 – Hypoaldostronemia RTA All are Hyperchloremic- Normal Anion Gap
79
Type 2 – Proximal RTA?
Can be Isolated or as part of combined proximal tubule reabsorption defect, i.e. Fancony Syndrome Rickets in Children Osteomalacia in adults Urine pH – low due to Normal Distal H+ excretion treatment- citrate or bicarbonate salts, mainly as K+ salts, 10-15 meq/Kg/d (due to hypokalemia)
80
Type 1- Distal RTA?
``` Can be complete, no urine acidification (infantile) or incomplete (adult) ``` Nephrocalcinosis secondary to bone release of Calcium and Phosphate Deafness is common in hereditary forms (same channels as in kidney) Treatment – K-Citrate (citrate becomes HCO3-), 1-2 meq/L/d
81
Type 4 – Hypoaldostronemia RTA?
no aldosterone 🡪 less Na/Katpase 🡪 No lumen electronegativity 🡪 no excretion of K+ from principle cells🡪 no excretion of H+ by A-intercalated Usually comes with renal failure (partly blamed for aldosterone resistance) Common in Diabetes Mellitus (because of hyporeninemia) Treatment – Treat hyperkalemia Sometimes mineralocorticoids (mimic aldosterone)
82
lactic acidosis pathophysiology?
●Increased pyruvate production. ●Reduced entry of pyruvate into mitochondria, where it is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water or converted to glucose precursors. ●A shift of the cellular cytoplasmic redox state such that NADH accumulates and NAD+ falls. This drives the pyruvate/lactate ratio toward lactate. generally defined as a serum lactate concentration above 4 mmol/L
83
lactic acidosis anion gap?
lactate === Addition of non-carbonic non Cl- acids 🡪 HCO3- utilization 🡪 AG increase over 17 with K added / over 12 without K added
84
metabolic acidosis investigation?
1. check for metabolic acidosis (HCO3- low and Pco2 low in correlation) 2. Check Lactate, Ketoacids 3. Check Osmollar Gap= Measured osmolarity – Calculated Osmolarity Calculated = 2Na+ + urea +glucose (millimol) >25 milliosmol – Suggests methanol or ethylene glycol intoxication measured osmolarity done by LAB- low freezing point, higher boiling point (anionic bonds are stronger than H bonds)
85
Metabolic Acidosis: Symptoms?
Tachypnea, dyspnea Low blood pressure (reduced cardiac contractility, vasodilation) Reduced response to cathecholamines lethargy to coma Chronic acidemia: Bone disorders Anorexia, Vomiting
86
Metabolic Acidosis- Treatment?
``` Treat Cause not organic- pH < 7.2 organic acidemia treat when pH < 7.1 ↓ consider giving NaHCO3- practically the only way to give HCO3-== Be sure patient is capable of coping with Na+ and fluid overload ↓ consider dialysis if cant (HF ,PHT...) ```
87
Metabolic Alkalosis Maintenance Etiology?
Decreased HCO3- excretion by the kidneys: EBV Depletion- Na+/ H2O reabsorption, with it more HCO3- than usual tmax (26 to 33-34) Chloride depletion (vomitting)- electrical balancing requires HCO3- reabsorption Hypokalemia Hyperaldostronism
88
Metabolic Alkalosis Etiology?
1. Loss of H+ or Chloride -Gastrointestinal loss Vomiting (urine Cl < 20 meq/L) Naso-gastric tube Chloride losing diarrhea (rare) ``` -Renal loss Loop or thiazide diuretics (urine Cl < 20 meq/L) Hereditary (Barter, Gittelman) Mineralocorticoid excess Post chronic hypercapnea Non-reabsorpable anions ``` -Skin Loss Burns Cystic Fibrosis 2. Administration of HCO3 Massive blood transfusion Administration of NaHCO3 Milk –alkali Syndrome 3. H+ shift into the cells Hypokalemia
89
Metabolic Alkalosis Symptoms?
Asymptomatic Or Weakness, muscle cramps (related to hypovolemia) Polyuria polydipsia and muscle weakness (hypokalemia)
90
Metabolic Alkalosis Treatment?
Stop the reason If EBV↓ Cl↓ – Give Normal Saline NaCl 0.9% If Fluid overload – give CA2 inhibitors (Acetazolamide) or NH4Cl If Minralocorticoid excess – block and correct.
91
PTH- FGF23- calcitriol relationship ?
PTH induce secretion of FGF23 and VIT D both negative feedbacking on PTH. VIT D induce secretion of FGF23 it negative feedbacking on VIT D
92
negative endocrine feedback loops? (with minerals)
``` PTH and VIT-D induce Ca+2 deposition to bone at low lvls secretion of Ca+2 from bone at high lvls inhibit excretion of Ca from kidney Ca inhibit PTH and VIT-D secretion ``` VIT-D inhibit excretion of P from kidney induce absorption from intestine of Ca+2 and P FGF23 induce secretion of P from kidney P induce PTH and FGF23 secretion high lvls of P forming complexeswith Ca+2 in the serum thus inducing hypocalcemia thus PTH and VIT D generally elevates Ca+2 in serum VIT-D elevates P in serum
93
plasma calcium level?
8.8 to 10.3 mg/dL 2.2 to 2.6 mmol/L thus 4.4 to 5.2 mEq/L 50% ionized and free- the only one relevant 10% in complexes 40% bound to proteins
94
Calcium shifts with normal albumin?
low albumin does not influence on free ionized Ca+2 lvls acidemia (opposite with alkalemia) more H+ bound to albumin 🡪 less Ca+2 bound to albumin 🡪 [Ca] Ionized ↑
95
pleiotropy definition?
includes all of a drug's actions other than those for which the agent was specifically developed. adverse effects + additional beneficial effects (usually standard reference)
96
Vitamin D mechanism of Ca+2 absorption in the small intestines?
VIT-D bind VDR 🡪 dimerization with another VDR or RXR 🡪 bind DNA at VDRE 🡪 gene transcription (PTH and distranscription of CaSR) TRPV6 -Luminal transport, exp. dependent on VIT-d high [Ca+2] is toxic to cells 🡪 buffering system needed 🡪 Calbinding-D9k PMCA - plasma membrane Ca ATPase- basolateral transport
97
Vitamin D mechanism of Ca+2 reabsorption in the kidney?
TRPV5 -Luminal transport, exp. dependent on VIT-d high [Ca+2] is toxic to cells 🡪 buffering system needed 🡪 CABP NCX1 (antiporter)- basolateral transport
98
Hypercalcemia etiology?
90%: - 1° hyperparathyroidism 🡪 most common - malignancy-related (PTHrP) 10%: - vitamin D-related: intoxication, sarcoid, etc. - high bone turnover: hyperthyroid, immobility -associated with renal failure: tertiary hyperparathyroidism aluminum and adynamic bone disease milk-alkali syndrome
99
Primary hyperparathyroidism ETIOLOGY?
solitary adenoma parathyroid hyperplasia multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) MEN1; MENIN tumor suppressor MEN2A, MEN2B; RET proto-oncogene Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (FHH) – CaSR mutations (Primary hyperparathyroidism mimicking)
100
Hypercalcemia of malignancy etiology?
humoral; tumor secretes PTHrP- squamous cell carcinoma renal tumors direct bone marrow invasion – bone resorption and local destruction by cytokines 1,25(OH)2D - lymphoma
101
Hypercalcemia symptoms?
moans- psychiatric groans- abdominal bone stones- renal
102
Treatment of hypercalcemia?
+ renal failure 🡪 dialysis aggressive IV rehydration 🡪 loop diuretic osteoclasts inhibition 🡪 bisphosphonate +- calcitonin lymphoma / leukemia 🡪 steroids refractory 🡪 gallium or denosumab
103
Hypocalcemia sings?
Trousseau sign- facial nerve tapping induced spasm Chvostek’s sign- hypoxia induced arm flexors contraction (extensors too but weaker 🡪 we see flexetion) pathophysiology- NA channels open at lower membrane voltage in presence of Ca+2 🡪 Na basal current is higher 🡪 AP threshold is lower
104
Hypocalcemia on ECG?
long QT -> polymorphic VT
105
Treatment of hypocalcemia?
symptomatic or Ca+2 <1.9mmol/L control immediately 🡪 IV 10% Ca-glucoronate 10-20 ml over a period of 10-15 minutes (glucoronate because than we can give in peripheral vein) control over days/weeks: VIT-D if PTH deficient 🡪 VIT-D analogue (active) if PTH intact 🡪 Cholecalciferol or ergocalciferol
106
hypophosphatemia Clinical findings?
``` -neuromuscular weakness, paralysis confusion, hallucinations ataxia seizures coma rhabdomyolysis ``` - respiratory failure, cardiac dysfunction - hemolysis, defective leukocytes and platelets - chronic: osteomalacia, rickets
107
hypophosphatemia Mechanisms: Decreased intestinal absorption?
Inadequate intake Antacids containing aluminum or magnesium Steatorrhea and chronic diarrhea Vitamin D deficiency or resistance
108
phosphate intestinal absorption mechanism?
VIT-D bind VDR 🡪 dimerization with another VDR or RXR 🡪 bind DNA at VDRE 🡪 gene transcription 🡪 sodium phosphate cotransporter 2B 🡪 Luminal transport high Pi diet = passive paracellular
109
Increased urinary excretion of phosphate etiology?
PTH: Primary hyperparathyroidism Vitamin D deficiency (2° hyperparathyroidism) PTHrP-dependent independent of PTH: Primary renal phosphate wasting Fanconi syndrome (proximal tubule defect) Hereditary hypophosphatemic rickets Oncogenic osteomalacia (FGF23↑) Other - osmotic diuresis, acetazolamide, acute volume expansion
110
refeeding syndrome?
starvation 🡪 carbohydrates↓ 🡪 insulin ↓ 🡪 fat and protein catabolised to produce energy 🡪 intracellular loss of electrolytes, mainly phosphate 🡪 intracellular phosphate stores can be depleted despite normal serum phosphate concentrations 🡪 start to feed 🡪 sudden shift from fat to carbohydrate metabolism 🡪 insulin↑ 🡪 cellular uptake of phosphate🡪 hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia, hypokalemia, B1↓
111
hungry bone syndrome?
hypocalcemia (< 2.1 mmol/L) postparathyroidectomy in patients with hyperparathyroidism, which usually resolves in 2-4 days. hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia, hyperkalemia can be seen can be seen in osteoblastic metastases too
112
Symptoms of hyperphosphatemia?
Increased cardiovascular calcifications and associated morbidity and mortality (which means none)
113
hyperphosphatemia mediated vascular calcification mechanism?
vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs): osteogenic/chondrogenic conversion in the vascular wall 🡪 dramatic loss of mineralization inhibitors 🡪production of calcifying matrix vesicles 🡪extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation 🡪apoptosis and release of apoptotic bodies, which, in turn, form the initial nidus for vascular calcification.
114
hyperphosphatemia etiology?
Renal failure (decreased filtration) Massive acute phosphate load: - Tumor lysis syndrome - Rhabdomyolysis - Crush injury - Hyperthermia - Fulminant hepatitis - Hemolysis - Exogenous administration Primary increase in proximal phosphate reabsorption - Primary hypoparathyroidism - Parathyroid suppression (2° hypo-para) - Pseudohypoparathyroidism - Familial tumoral calcinosis (FGF23 mute) - Heparin therapy
115
phosphate excretion?
acts as in creatinine clearance 🡪 immediate reduction of elevation of GFR does not cause change in serum [Pi]
116
PTH Mechanism of hypophosphatemia?
PTH1R- PTH interaction 🡪 PKA (maybe C) activation 🡪 NHERF1 phosphorylation 🡪 NPT2a/c endocytosis
117
Treatment of hyperphosphatemia?
Dietary restrictions Phosphate binders- Revela / sevelamer carbonate lanthanum (Dialysis- at tumor lysis syndrome)
118
סוגי המטוריה?
גלויה (מקרוסקופית) או נסתרת (מיקרוסקופית) ממקור עליון (הכליה) או תחתון מבודדת או יחד עם פרוטאינוריה לא אמיתית (מיוגלובין, המוגלובין)
119
hematuria DD?
``` זהום(שלפוחית, ערמונית, שופכה, כליה) טראומה מציסטה מחלת אבנים מחלה גידולית מחלה דלקתית גלומרולארית (לרוב עם פרוטאינוריה)או אינטרסטיציאלית אוטם כלייתי ```
120
hematuria treatment?
על פי הגורם: אנטיביוטיקה ריסוק או הוצאת אבנים הוצאת גדול או טפול אחר (קרינה, כימותרפיה, ביולוגי) טפול בבעיה הנפרולוגית
121
glomerular proliferative disease pathopisiology?
``` ריבוי תאי דלקת או ריבוי תאים כיליתיים מקוריים: תוך קפילריים חוץ קפילריים – קופסית על שם באומן ↓ Crescent – סהרון יורכב מהמונוציטים או מתאי האפיתל הפריאטליים המצפים את קופסית באופן בחלקה הפנימי, המשכיים לפודוציטים בקוטב הוסקולארי ולתאי האפיתל הטובולריים בקוטב היורינארי. ```
122
Sclerosis definition (in kidney)?
עלייה בכמות החומר החוץ תאי עם מבנה והרכב זהים לממברנת הבסיס הגלומרולרית ולחומר המזנגיאלי התקין
123
Fibrosis definition?
שקיעה של קולגן מסוג 1+3 כתוצאה מהגלדה של תהליך דלקתי
124
The Major Glomerulopathies?
תסמונת נפריטית: גלומרולונפריטיס חריפה גלומרולונפריטיס תת חריפה – RPGN גלומרולונפריטיס כרונית תסמונת נפרוטית פגיעות אסמפטומטיות – פרוטאינוריה והמטוריה
125
?תסמונת נפרוטית הגדרה
בהגדרה (עפ"י אפ-טו-דייט ולא לפי מה שבא למרצה באותו רגע!): פרוטאינוריה מעל 3.5 גרם ל-1.73 מטר רבוע/יום היפואלבומינמיה- (אלבומין< 3.5 גרם/דצ"ל) בצקת חלק עם פרוטאנוריה קשה ולא יפתחו את התסמונת חלק עם פרוטאנוריה אפילו פחותה, ויפתחו את כל התסמונת סימנים נוספים- היפרליפידמיה נטייה לקרישיות יתר
126
הפרשת חלבון תקינה בשתן?
150 מ"ג ביום Ig 20% אלבומין 40% Tamm Hors fall 40%- tubular secretion only role in prevention of infection and stones
127
Proteinuria stages?
150-300mg/24h- microalbuminuria <300mg/24h- proteinuria <3-3.5gr/24h- nephrotic proteinuria over 0.5gr demands treatment over 1gr demands biopsy
128
nephrotic syndrome diagnosis?
שתן: 1. מראה- קצפי 2. urine dipsticks- only albumin 3. sulfosalycilic acid- a must if dipstick came negative, checks for any kind of protein, makes sample murky 4. יחס אלבומין או פרוטאין / קראטינין בשתן- אצל רופאי ילדים באופן קבוע, כשאי אפשר לעשות איסוף 24 שעות 5. איסוף שתן ל – 24 שעות. הגולד סטאנדרט False positive: שתן מרוכז. אנטיביוטיקה. חומר ניגוד.
129
Peripheral edema cycle?
oncotic pressure↓ 🡪 fluids move to ECF 🡪 low intravascular pressure 🡪 RAAS activation, ADH secretion and ANP inhibition 🡪 fluids reabsorption 🡪 exacerbation of edema
130
nephrotic syndrome: hypercoagulation pathophysiology?
- urinary loss of antithrombin 3 🡪 reduction in activation of proteins C+S - urinary loss of proteins C+S - fibrinogen production in liver ↑ - platelets activation ↑ thus: DVT, RVT ,PE are all up
131
other influences of nephrotic syndrome?
VIT-D def. thyroxin def. anemia- transferrin def. infection- IgG urinary loss, 'whipping edema'
132
Nephrotic syndrome DD Of primary diseases?
children- Minimal change disease 80% Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis ``` adults- 1st. focal segmental glumerulosclerosis 2nd. membranous nephropathy 20-30% minimal change 20% mesangiocapillary GN immunotactoid glomerulopathy ```
133
Nephrotic syndrome DD Of systemic diseases?
diabetes amyloidosis MM, light chain disease SLE- membranous HBV,HCV,HIV- membranous, MPGN lymphomas- MCD solid neoplasms- membranous drugs (heroine, gold, penicillin)
134
Minimal change disease clinical findings?
nephrotic syndrome albumin loss due to GBM electrical negativity loss no urine precipitations microscopic hematuria 20-30%- this is why it is called minimal change rarely: renal insufficiency, Hypertension
135
Minimal change disease pathological findings?
EM- podocyte feet diffuse effacement and detachment Light microscopy- normal glomeruli Tubular epithelial cell protein- resorption droplets Immunofluorescence microscopy- negative
136
Minimal change disease etiology?
idiopathic mostly drugs- Rifampicin (TB), NSAIDS Hodgkin lymphoma HIV, viral
137
Minimal change disease treatment?
30-40% self limiting in children steroids 90% children / 50% adults reflaming or refractory- cytotoxicity: cyclophosphamide, calcineurin
138
Focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis clinical findings?
nephrotic syndrome More often non selective proteinuria if idiopathic: 1/3 will have hematuria, reduced GFR (renal failure), hypertension
139
Focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis pathology?
IF- focal segmental IgM and C3 (nonspecific, 'trapping') EM- in affected glomeruli increased mesangial matrix focal detachment of visceral epithelial cells diffuse effacement of foot processes Hypertrophy and proliferation of glomerular visceral epithelial cells (podocytes)- HIV, collapsing variant Secondary event reflecting scarring
140
Focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis etiology?
primary: idiopathic can reappear in kidney transplants, responds to plasmapheresis in some secondary: over usage - single kidney -acquired glomerular injury (<50%): surgery, reflux, CRD - over weight (higher demand of kidneys) -HIV, heroin addiction, sickle cell disease
141
Focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis treatment?
50% end stage renal disease within 10 years long period steroids- 70% reaction, in those: cytotoxicity- 50% reaction renal failure or hypertension- worse prognosis (da)
142
Membranous Glomerulopathy etiology?
Primary (idiopathic ) 80% ``` Secondary 20%: SLE 15% penicillamine, captopril, NSAID, gold Chronic hepatitis B,C, syphilis, schistosomiasis, malaria diabetes mellitus, MCTD, GRAVE, PBC carcinoma ```
143
Membranous Glomerulopathy Clinical findings?
non selective Nephrotic syndrome macroscopic hematuria- 50% hypertension 10-30%
144
Membranous Glomerulopathy pathology?
Uniform thickening of capillary wall BM (no increased cells/proliferation)- "spikes and holes" IF- peripheral (capillary, not in mesangium) granular deposits of IgG and C 3 EM- subepithelial deposits surrounded by new basement like material; fusion of foot processes ANTI PLA2R (IgG4, fixed intrinsic) 80% OF CASES
145
Membranous Glomerulopathy treatment?
40% self limited 40% reflaming- give cytotoxicity 20%- ESRD
146
Membranous Glomerulopathy: diabetes pathophysiology?
glycosuria (not only glucose) 🡪 glucose and Na reuptake 🡪 ANP ↑ 🡪 Afferent vasodilation 🡪 glomeruli hypertension 🡪 secondary damage🡪 give ACEi for Efferent vasodilation
147
Nephrotic Syndrome - Therapy?
``` Treat underlying disorder Low sodium, normal protein diet Diuretics ACE inhibitors Statins Consider anticoagulation (PE, DVT) vitamin D ```
148
Nephritic syndrome- definition?
oliguria: <400ml/day glomerular hematuria: red cell casts, dysmorphic RBC, sometimes microscopic "pee looks like coke non nephrotic proteinuria (<3.5gr/day) hypertension peripheral edema
149
Nephritic syndrome: low GFR pathophysiology?
- mesangial proliferation + capillary block by inflammation cells - disequilibrium of vasoconstrictors>vasodilators
150
RPGN -Rapidly Progressive G.N Pathology?
crescents!!!- proliferation of podocytes, monocytes and macrophages present, fibrin Glomeruli may show focal necrosis, diffuse or focal endothelial or mesangial proliferation IF depends on type: Immune complex GN 45% (grannular pattern) Pauci immune GN 45% Anti GBM 10% EM rupture in GBM, in some cases subepithelial deposits; NOT HELPFUL
151
Nephritic syndrome DD (שאלה במבחן)?
anti-GBM- IgA nephropathy/ burger's diseases Pauci-immune GN- Idiopathic Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) Microscopic polyarteritis nodosa (PAN) ``` immune complex GN- Idiopathic Postinfectious SLE Henoch Schonlein purpura Cryo SBE shunt ``` ``` NON RPGN- malignant HTN HUS/TTP interstitial nephritis SRC emboli ```
152
Immune complex GN characteristics?
low or normal C3 anti-GBM negative IF: granular IgG and C3
153
PAUCI – IMMUNE GN general characteristics?
normal C3 anti-GBM negative IF: NORMAL AntiNeutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody (ANCA): cANCA- Wegener's granulomatosis / granulomatosis with polyangiitis pANCA- microscopic polyangiitis
154
Anti GBM GN characteristics?
normal C3 anti-GBM possitive 90% IF: linear IgG and C3 ``` Goodpasture syndrome (50-70%, lung involvement): Antibodies against noncollagenous domain of alpha 3 chain of collagen IV ``` cresents!
155
nephritic syndrome treatment?
PSGN- self limited steroids (IV) cytotoxicity- cyclophosphamide, Imuran MMF (Mycophenolate mofetil)- for T cells rituximab- B cells HTN balancing
156
MAP (mean arterial pressure) calculation?
2/3 DP +1/3 SP or DP + 1/3 PP | <60mmHg
157
new blood pressure stages?
``` (not that good with healthy young): normal <120 <80 elevated blood pressure 120-129 <80 stage 1 HTN 130-139 80-89 stage 2 HTN >=140 >=90 ```
158
israeli blood pressure stages?
``` best <120 <80 normal 120-129 80-84 borderline 130-139 85-89 stage 1 HTN 140-159 90-99 stage 2 HTN 160-179 stage 3 HTN >=180 >=110 ```
159
Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring?
better prognostic tool HTN ≥130/80 24/h day HTN / HomeBPM ≥135/85 night HTN ≥120/70 ('dipping', normal)
160
Malignant hypertension pathology?
וסקוליטיס נמקית דיפוסית קרישים בארטריולות משקעי פיברין בדפנות הארטריולות.
161
Malignant hypertension definition?
>180/120 | קצב העליה חשוב יותר מהערך עצמו- יל"ד חדש (רעלת היריון, גלומרולונפריטיס חדה)
162
Malignant hypertension categories?
Hypertensive urgency- asymptomatic community care Hypertensive emergency- symptomatic (organ damage) hospitalization, urgent IV
163
primary blood pressure risk factors?
age- systolic elevates, diastolic elevated mid-age and reduced in elders family history- 2X % race- blacks ``` Obesity low nephron count high Na intake high methanol intake low physical activity psychosocial pressure ```
164
secondary HTN risk factors?
drugs- oral contraceptives, NSAIDS, Tricyclics, SSRI, steroids, ErythroStymulatingAgents ,cyclosporine , amphetamines... CRF/ ARI primary hyperaldosteronism- HTN, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis reno-vascular HTN- Fibromuscular dysplasia- renal artery spiraling >1% of patients with mild HTN 10-45% AT HIGH HTN 10-14% of coronary atherosclerosis (elders) 24-35% of peripheral arterial disease ObstructiveSleepApnea ``` other: pheochromocytoma, Cushing's , hypo/hyperthyroidism (mild diastolic, mild systolic in accordance) hypo/hyperparathyroidism Aortic coarctation acromegaly hypercalcemia ```
165
מתי יש לחשוד ביתר לחץ דם רנו-וסקולרי?
- התחלה של יל"ד חמור לאחר גיל 55. - עליה של 50% קריאטינין אחרי מעכבי אנגיוטנסין. - מחלה טרשתית מפושטת - כליה אטרופית (ללא הסבר טוב אחר) - הפרש גדלים בין הכליות של מעל 1.5 ס"מ - כליה קטנה חד צדדית (<9 ס"מ)- 75% חסימה של כלי גדול - אירועים חוזרים של בצקת ריאות - אוושה סיסטולית-דיאסטולית בטנית חד צדדית – רגישות כ-40%, ספציפיות 99%!
166
מתי לחשוד באלדוסטרוניזם ראשוני?
היפוקלמיה לא מוסברת <50% היפרנתרמיה קלה יתר לחץ דם עמיד לטיפול בנוכחות אינסידנטלומה.
167
HTN treatment management?
life style- all drugs- stage 1- after life style changes fail or organ damage stage 2- consider 2 drugs (careful with elders or diabetes- orthostatism) <80y- lower to 130/80 >80y / fragile patient- moderate reduction
168
HTN drugs: compelling indications?
reduction of HTN it-self is more important than which drug to give most- 7-13 mmHg systolic and 4-8mmHg diastolic reduction systolic heart failure- ACEi or ARB, BB, diuretic, spironolactone post MI- ACEi, BB, ARB, diuretic, spironolactone proteinuric CKD- ACEi or ARB AP- BB, CCB, A.fib / A. flutter- BB, NON-dihydropyridine CCB
169
HTN drugs: comorbid conditions?
BPH- alpha blocker essential tumor- BB hyperthyroidism- BB migraine- BB, CCB osteoporosis- thiazides Raynaud's syndrome- dihydropyridine CCB
170
HTN drugs: Contra indications?
Angioedema- ACEi pregnancy- ACEi, ARB, renin inhibitor will give- Labetalol, nifedipine, methyl-dopa 2nd/ 3rd heart block- BB, non-dihydropyridine CCB may have adverse affects on comorbidities- GOUT- diuretics hyperkalemia- spironolactone , ACEi/ARB hyponatremia- thiazides
171
HTN primary treatment?
thiazides, CCB-DHP, ACEi, ARB BLACKS- thiazides, CCB-DHP proteinuric CKD- ACEi or ARB
172
HTN combined therapy?
better than MAX dose of one drug CCB-DHP- ACEi/ARB thiazides- ACEi/ARB (not as good) no ACEi AND ARB!!
173
HTN therapy at night?
15% lower than day Non-dipping= <10% reduction of night blood tension move one drug to be taken at evening
174
resistant HTN?
resistant after combination of 3 drugs (diuretics too) at <50% max dose or (15%) controlled with 4 drugs
175
Pseudo-resistant HTN?
1st- drug non compliance 2nd- low salt life style non compliance ``` small cuff of Blood pressure checker white coat (do ABPM) ```
176
Urgent dialysis indications (test) ?
עודף נוזלים – בצקת ריאות פריקרדיטיס (טמפונדות) אנצפלופטיה אורמית- שקיעה במצב הכרה פרכוס היפרקלמיה חמצת מטבולית לא ניתנת לטיפול: -כשסודיום-ביקרבונט לא יכול להינתן עקב עודף נוזלים דמם לא נשלט בחולה אורמי (פגיעה בטסיות) היפרקלצמיה קשה הרעלות (Lithium)
177
איך נבדיל בין אי-ספיקת כליות כרונית ואקוטית?
osteoporosis anemia- EPO US- small, cortex-medulla border attenuation Amyloidosis- kidneys can be larger
178
ARF categorization?
Pre renal Renal Post Renal- will start here, will help determine if urology patient
179
POST RENAL- ARF diagnosis?
``` אנמנזה: מחלת אבנים פרוסטטזים גידול שתן- כיליה שניה עובדת, לא עובדת, חסימה חד"צ ``` ``` בדיקה פיזיקלית: מישוש + ניקוש רגישות מותנית פרוסטטה- גושים, הגדלה קטטר- שארית, גדולה בעיה בצינור שופכה ``` הדמיה: US – תחילה גודל כליה (כרוני/אקוטי), שנית הדרונפרוזיס C.T.- פרוטוקול אבנים (IntraVenous Pyelogram) צסטוסקיפיה + בדיקה רטרוגרדית (גולד סטנדרט)
180
POST RENAL - ARF treatment?
קטטר (בייחוד בבעיות בצינור שופכה) | נפרוסטומיה- באים מהעור
181
PRE RENAL ARF definition?
הכליה מתפקדת כיאות אך אינה מקבלת די דם כדי לסננו
182
PRE RENAL ARF etiology?
1. היפו-וולמיה דימום: GI, בטני, חיצוני, (נבדוק דימום רקטלי) שוק לבבי : אינפרקציה, הפרעת קצב, בעיה מסתמית חריפה, טמפונדה (פריקרדיטיס) MASSIVE PE ANAPHYLAXIS ספטי (שכיח במיוחד במאושפזים) נוירוגני (נדיר) איבוד מים: זיעה בטן פתוחה - פרפורציה ושטיפות, 3-4 ליטר ביום כוויות איבוד מים + מלח: מעי - הקאות, שלשול 2. מדור שלישי מיימת בצקות 3. איבוד בשתן : DI, הגיע לניתוח, מונשם מורדם ולא שותה, איבוד מים
183
PRE RENAL – ARF diagnosis?
אנמנזה: בהתאם לנ"ל ``` בדיקה פיזיקאלית: ל"ד (ירוד) + אורטוסטטיזים (יש פיצוי בשכיבה) טורגור ירוד (למשוך את העור) ריריות יבשות בצקות + מיימת שיפשוף פריקרדיאלי Pulsus Pardoxus מיעוט/ריבוי שתן ``` מעבדה: Urea/ creatinine (Plasma) > 20 (יוראה משמשת לריכוז השתן, מה שהכליה יכולה ורוצה) Na (plasma) ↓ 🡪 (if adequate) Na (urine)< L/mmol10-20 U/P creatinine > 40 (if adequate function) Fractional excretion of Na < 1% (FENA) Na(U) \Na(P) x creatinine(P) \creatinine(U) x 100 urine osmolarity = Specific gravity > 1.030
184
PRE RENAL – ARF treatment?
נוזלים, דם לפי צורך | פתרון הבעיה
185
RENAL - ARF etiology?
פגיעה גלומורולית פגיעה אנטרסטיציאלית פגיעה טובולורית כלי דם גדולים: חסימה עורקית חסימה ורדית כלי דם קטנים: HUS , TTP cholesterol emboli
186
renal artery blockage diagnosis?
atherosclerosis, ParoxymalAF Pain, hypertension US doppler CT angio MRA angiography (treat too)
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renal vein blockage diagnosis?
same as artery but: hypercoagulative patients flank pain hematuria, proteinuria irreversible damage
188
RENAL ARF- acute tubular necrosis Pathophysiology?
מדולה : אספקת חמצן נמוכה צריכת חמצן גבוהה הטובולים - הראשונים לסבול
189
RENAL ARF- acute tubular necrosis etiology?
same as pre-renal ARF טוקסינים אנדוגנים- המוגלובין, מיוגלובין ``` טוקסינים אקסוגניים- חומר ניגוד אמינוגליקוזידים ציטוטוקסיקה/ כמוטרפיה NSAID’s ```
190
rhabdomyolysis etiology?
``` טראומה פרכוס שכיבה ממושכת מכת חום מחלה וירלית קשה חסר CPT- carnitine palmitoyltransferase ```
191
acute tubular necrosis diagnosis?
``` אנמנזה: סיבות לאיסכמיה כנ"ל המוליזה – מחלות רקע, שתן קולה חשיפה לחומר ניגוד- CT אנגיוגרפיה צינטור לב תרופות (כימו וכו) ``` קליניקה: אוליגוריאה (ניתן בזהירות פוסיד, גרם ל24 שעות) ללא אוליגוריה ``` מעבדה : (שתן) Na >20 FENA > 1% Specific Gravity ↓ hematuria Muddy Broad Brown Casts ``` ``` plasma: rhabdomyolysis- CPK↑ + myoglobin↑ Pi↑ K↑ hemolysis- bilirubin↑ + LDH↑ uric acid↑ ```
192
ATN treatment?
נוזלים הבססת שתן ע"פ צורך (מוריד קריסטליזציה של מיוגלובין בטובולי) משתנים- עד גרם ביממה, במידה ואוליגורי דיאליזה
193
A.I.N definition?
תהליך דלקתי באינטרסטיציום המתפתח באופן מהיר והגורם לאי ספיקת כליות חריפה. 15% ממקרי אי ספיקת כליות חריפה.
194
A.I.N etiology?
תרופות (70-80%) פנצילינים (הכי רווח)- ללא קשר למינון לעיתים תגובה אלרגית הכוללת: חום פריחה וארטרלגיה. NSAID- גם פגיעה גלומרולרית ואז פרוטאינוריה. דיורטיקה צפאלוספורינים זהום (הכל, 15%) ``` אוטואימוני: דחייה חריפה של כליה מושתלת. ואסקוליטיס S.L.E. סארקואידוזיס T.I.N.U. SYND. ``` גידול- לימפופרוליפראטביות מטאבולי אידיופאטי- 8%
195
A.I.N diagnosis?
אנמנזה: חום, פריחה, ארטראלגיה ב1/3 מהמקרים תרופות חשודות, מעורבות איברים אחרים. בדיקה פיזיקלית: פריחה, עיניים. שתן: אאוזנופלוריה (הכי חשוב), כדוריות לבנות, מעט חלבון ויתכנו מעט גלילים גרנולאריים. ספירת דם: אאוזינופליה לעיתים. אנמיה. ביופסיה- גולד סטנדרט
196
Renal Biopsy indications?
No improvement after withdrawal | drug, infection
197
renal biopsy Contraindications?
``` Bleeding diathesis Solitary kidney (not absolute) No cooperation End-stage renal disease (most important) Uncontrolled hypertension Patient refusal Sepsis ```
198
A.I.N- treatment?
הפסקת תרופות חשודות. יתכן וטיפול בסטרואידים מקצר משך מחלה ורמות קראטינין אך לא פרוגנוזה ב NSAIDS אין כנראה יתרון לסטרואידים במחלות אוטואימוניות לשקול ציטוטוקסיקה
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CKD definition?
``` פגיעה בתפקוד הכליה למשך 3 חודשים ויותר: אלבומינוריה משקע שתן פעיל ממצאים בהדמיה (כליות קטנות, היפראקואיות, פוליציסטיות וכו) ביופסיית כליה כליה מושתלת (בלי קשר לתפקודה) ירידת GFR ```
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גורמי סיכון במחלה כלייתית כרונית: קרדיווסקולארי?
מחלה כלייתית כרונית מהווה בעצמה גורם סיכון קרדיווסקולארי משמעותי ולכן נקפיד יתרה על איזון גומרים קרדיווסקולאריים אחרים: היפרליפידמיה, נרצה להגיע ל: LDL< 100gr%, 70gr% is better עישון יל"ד- עם פרוטאינוריה מעל 0.5 גרם ליום- עד 130/80 ללא -עד 140/90 פרוטאינוריה- פחות מ 1 גרם ליממה או ירידה של 50-60% לפחות (מתחת ל 3.5 גרם ליממה). טיפול במחלת יסוד, ACE/ARB, הגבלת חלבון כלכלה דלת מלח- 2.3 גרם נתרן ליום מעל גיל 51 עם רקע של סכרת ו/או יל"ד ו/או אי ספיקת כליות= עד 1.5 גרם ליום.
201
סיבוכים במחלה כלייתית כרונית?
קרדיווסקולארי זיהומים בעיקר בדרכי הנשימה, המין והשתן- חיסונים לפני דיאליזה ממאירויות (ציסטות בכליות שלא עובדות) אנמיה מחלות עצם ``` עודף נוזלים- הגבלת השתייה, מתן משתנים והגבלת מלח היפרקלמיה- kayexalate, ACEi/ARB, spironolactone. חמצת מטאבולית- דיאטה דלת חלבון, סודיוםביקרבונט, דיאליזה ```
202
סיבוכים במחלה כלייתית כרונית: אנמיה?
חסר ברזל במחלת כליות כרונית מתקדמת? סטורציית טרנספרין < 20% פריטין < 100 נ"ג/מ"ל -במטופלי דיאליזה: <200נ"ג/מ"ל ניתן ESA- נביא להמוגלובין של 10-12 גרם %. מקובל גם במטופלי מרפאת פרה דיאליזה
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זרחן באי ספיקת כליות?
עיקר ההפרשה דרך הכליות- 5400מ"ג בשבוע דיאליזה- מחצית מכך= יש לטפל בתצורות נוספות ``` היפרפאראתיירודיזם משני לרמות הזרחן הגבוהות: גירוי ישיר היפוקלצמיה משנית להיפרפוספטמיה ירידה בייצור ויטמין D פעיל עמידות בלוטת PT לפעילות ויטמין D ``` - שקיעת קומפלקסים זרחן-סידן בדפנות כלי הדם - קלסיפיקציה של כלי דם עקב רמות סידן גבוהות - פגיעה באנדותל - יצירת רדיקאליים חופשיים
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מחלות עצם במטופלי אי ספיקת כליות?
Osteitis fibrosa cystica Adynamic bone disease Osteomalacia Mixed uremic osteodystrophy parameters of differentiation: turnover rate (OS, OB) mineralization bone volume
205
Osteitis Fibrosa Cystica?
``` due to high PTH 🡪 high turnover rate (OS, OB) high bone volume איזורי ספיגת עצם מוגברת עצם חלשה ולא יציבה ```
206
Adynamic Bone Disease?
``` due to low PTH 🡪 low turnover rate (OS, OB) low bone volume מגיל מבוגר ,סוכרת נטייה לשברים מרובים נטייה רמות סידן גבוהות ```
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Osteomalacia?
mainly due to VIT-D.diff low turnover rate (OS, OB) higher bone volume with abnormal mineralization
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CKD treatment?
1. Pi- need protein in diet↑ 🡪 Pi ↑ (E-101...) 🡪 restriction is problematic 🡪 Pi binders most common: Calcium Carbonate Calcium Acetate (מינון מוגבל עקב סיכון מוגבר להסתיידויות כלי דם) Sevelamer Carbonate- in CKD 3 and above Lantanum- liver excretion ph>3 🡪 vast GI activity 2. ויטמין D פעיל- המינון מוגבל בשל הופעת היפרפוספטמיה ו/או היפרקלצמיה כתוצאה מהטיפול. לדיכוי הפרשת PTH קיים גם במתן לוריד 3. Vitamin D Receptor Agonist Zemplar הפעלת של רצפטור לויטמין די רק בפאראתיירואיד ADVANCED CKD not responsive to alfa D3 קיים גם במתן לוריד 4. Mimpra Ca sensing receptor (CaSR) ACTIVATOR 🡪 PTH ↓ המינון מוגבל ע"י היפוקלצמיה או רמת הורמון פאראתיירואיד preperation for Renal replacement therapy
209
גישה לכלי דם לצורך דיאליזה?
צנתר מרכזי - וריד הצוואר, וריד המפשעה, הווריד התת בריחי יושב בתוך חדר ימין, דרך הקוואה העליונה, פתח יציאה דרך תעלה תת עורית יחסית ארוכה: מניעת זיהומים פיברוזיס הקבע את הצנתר ומקשה על הוצאתו זמין לשימוש מיידי Arteiovenous Fistula יכול לקחת כמה חודשי הכנה Arteiovenous Graft עורקים וורידים לא תקינים, דקירה דרך השתל עצמו. דיאליזה פריטונאלית שבה הפריטונאום משמש כממברנה חדירה חלקית לאחר פרק זמן שנקבע מראש מרוקנים את הנוזל מן הבטן ומחליפים אותו בנוזל חדש
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עקרונות פעולה של המודיאליזה?
שאיבת הדם באופן אקטיבי Convective transport- גרירת המומסים עם גרדיאנט המים Diffusive transport- מעבר דרך ממברנה חצי חדירה סליל הדיאליזה- שמירת גרדיאנט מומסים ע"י הזרמת דיאלזט ודם בכיוונים מנוגדים. ניתן לשנות הרכב דיאליזט לצרכינו
211
סיבוכי המודיאליזה?
ירידת לחץ דם (שוק) זיהום בצנתר חסימת שאנט בין דיאליזה אחת למשניה: צבירת נוזלים היפרקלמיה
212
גישה לביצוע דיאליזה צפקית?
tenckhoff catheter | subcutaneous cuff + deep cuff (muscle)
213
דיאליזה צפקית- עקרונות פעולה?
כ-40% מהאולטרה-פילטרציה. תעלות אקוופורינים מסוג 1 - מעבר מים בהתאם למפל אוסמוטי, הנוצר ע"י הוספה של דיאליזאט היפרטוני. 60% מעבר פרה-צלולרי. דיפוזיה וקונבקציה. דיאליזאט: דומה להמודיאליזה אבל dextrose ריכוזים שונים שלו ימשכו כמות מים שונה תוך זמן שונה נחכה כשבועיים שלושה עד שיש רקמה מסביב לצינור למניעת דלף
214
סוגי דיאליזה צפקית?
CAPD (continuous ambulatory PD) לרוב 3 שחלופים במהלך שעות היום ושחלוף אחד ארוך בשעות הלילה CCPD (continuous Cycler Assisted PD) המכשיר מבצע את השחלופים בעצמו במהלך הלילה. לקראת הבוקר המכשיר ממלא את הבטן בתמיסת הicodextrin שיכולה להישאר 12-14 שעות IPD (intermittent PD) פחות שחלופים
215
דיאליזה צפקית- סיבוכים?
זיהומים: מוצא צנתר, תעלה, פריטוניטיס בעיות טכניות בזרימה/דלף (עצירות- לחץ/ סתימה של החרירים) אובדן חלבון- שיאכלו כי פינוי זרחן טוב יחסית ספיגת סוכר – סוכרת, דיסליפידמיה (ספיגת הדקסטרוז) בקעים- עליית תוך בטני הרס פריטונאום: AGEs עקב הדקסטרוז
216
types of RRT and indications?
hemodynamic instability- 1st CRRT / SLEDD (keep blood pressure) 2nd PeritonealDialysis 3rd Interminant hemodialysis Fluid overload- 1st CRRT / SLEDD 2nd Interminant hemodialysis 3rd PeritonealDialysis acute intracranial injury / hypertension- 1st CRRT / PD 2nd ProlongedIterminantRRT 3rd Interminant hemodialysis ``` life threatening conditions- 1st IHD 2nd ProlongedIterminantRRT 3rd CRRT 4rd PD ``` CRRT vs IRRT Better in hemodynamically unstable patients Better at fluid control / removal (no nephron damage)
217
CRRT characteristics?
disadvantages: Requires anticoagulation Difficult mobilization ``` Higher flexibility Large cumulative dose Planned fluid removal Hemodynamic stability No large solutes changes – for Neuro patients ```
218
Intermittent renal replacement therapy characteristics?
Higher solutes removal rate Intermittent = easier mobilization disadvantages: High fluids shifts – hemodynamic instability Rapid solutes shifts
219
direct / indirect presentation (graft)?
direct- התאים של התורם עצמו מציגים לתאים של המקבל (דנדריטיים) indirect- לאחר מספר ימים מעבר לתאים של המקבל המציגים את האנטיגנים בבלוטות הלימפה.
220
Adaptive (Acquired) Immunity (t cell) activation?
1. TCR-MHC2- ANTIGEN presentation 2. CD28-CD80/86 (CTELA4 inhibitory) 3.cytokines- from APC IL12 autocrine singnaling (IL-2)
221
detection of anti HLA antibodies?
ELISA- innate immune activation and membrane poring thus stain enter cells Flow bead- florescent conjugated anti-IgG to HLA antibodies to HLA antigens on beads
222
donor antibody / cross match scenarios?
Antibody negative 🡪 Cross Match negative 🡪 proceed Antibody negative 🡪 Cross Match positive 🡪 proceed ( antibodies not to HLA) Antibody positive (low count antibodies) 🡪 Cross Match negative 🡪 proceed Antibody positive 🡪 Cross Match positive 🡪 do not proceed
223
purpose of induction therapy?
deplete or modulate T-cell responses at time of antigen presentation allow reduction of other components such CNI or corticosteroids
224
glucocorticoids role at traslplantation?
induction + maintenance + treatment of rejection inhibit dendritic cell function inhibit NF-kB pathway inhibit cytokines production inhibit innate and addaptive immunity
225
depleting agents role at transplantation?
thymoglobulin (polyclonal) / OKT-3 (monoclonal) / Alemtuzumab (anti CD52): T-cell lysis and/or clearance of circulating lymphocytes ADVERSE EFFECT: Cytokine storm syndrome- massive cell lysis thrombophlebitis (avoid- give in large vein) thrombocytopenia, leukopenia CMV anaphylaxis Post transplantation lymphoproliferative.d- (EBV Ab positve donor)
226
IL-2 RA?
binds CD25 antigen at surface of activated T lymphocytes non depleting - no risk of cancer or infection ADVERESE: insomnia, tremor, headache
227
rituximab role in transplantation?
induction with ABO incompatible
228
Maintenance Immunosuppression?
Usually in addition to steroids calcineurin inhibitors- mTOR inhibitors antiproliferative agents
229
Calcineurin Inhibitors?
Ciclosporin A, Tacrolimus T-cell activation 🡪 incearse Ca 🡪 calmodulin binding 🡪 Inncrease IL-2 🡪 proliferation calcineurin inhibit Ca-calmodulin binding ADDVERSE: Diabetes, hyperlipidemia, hypertension interactions with other drugs (CYP3A4) During diarrhea- absorption is increased (P-Glycoprotein, MDR-1= epithel excretion dysfunction)
230
mTOR Inhibitors
Sirolimus, Everolimus | cell growth inhibition (cytoskeletal and protein synthesis)
231
antiproliferative agents (Antimetabolites)?
azathioprine- purine analogue was largely replaced by: Mycophenolate- inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase inhibitor (IMPDH) - inhibition of DE NOVO synthesis
232
transplantation drugs combinations?
prednisone, PROGRAF, MYCOPHENOLATE prednisone, PROGRAF, mTOR INHIBITOR prednisone, mTOR INHIBITOR, MYCOPHENOLATE PROGRAF, MYCOPHENOLATE נדיר בארץ שנותנים רק קלצינאורין אינהיבטור ומיקופנולט, בעולם מקובל
233
HyperAcute GRAFT rejection?
very rare minutes to hours Anti ABO, Anti HLA no effective treatment
234
Acute GRAFT rejection?
cellular, T cell mediated= anti donor immune reaction, graft T cell infiltration weeks to years Renal: interstitial and tubular infiltration (blood vessels too) treatment: biopsy before steroids if able bad biopsy or non effective treatment 🡪 depleting agents
235
?Antibodies Mediated Rejection
שכיח בחולים מרוגשים מראש, גם כאשר ההצלבה הייתה שלילית מראש PMNs + lympocytes in PTC +- endothelial arteritis usually no tubulitis donor specific anti HLA 1 or 2 +- thrombi duo to coagulation activation C4d deposition in immunofluorescent stain
236
treatment of Antibodies Mediated Rejection?
antibody removal/ neutralization- rituximab (splenectomy) , plasmapheresis, IVIg anti plasma cells- bortezomib if needed (by biopsy): depleting agents for cell mediated rejection conversion to tacrolimus based regims
237
chronic rejection?
month to years anti HLA antibodies against donor cells no treatment