03-1_Systems Theory

Question 1

What is the primary difference between a trivial and a non-trivial machine?

Answer 1

1. trivial machine: distinct, predictable processes; produces repeatable outputs based on inputs
2. non-trivial machine (like a living system) = a black box with complex, ambiguous processes: the response to an irritation is not repeatable or calculable, although the process can be reliably controlled through observation and adjustment

Question 2

How does observation influence the system being observed?

Answer 2

by drawing distinctions & indicating them => helps to create the observed & the unobserved within the system

Question 3

Explain the concept of a “black box” when discussing systems.

Answer 3

internal processes/workings invisible/unknown: observe I/O, what happens inside the box remains hidden => difficult to predict exact outcomes based solely on inputs

Question 4

In the context of Surveillance Capitalism, what is “behavioural surplus”?

Answer 4

raw material generated from nonmarket interactions with users (their data and online behaviour) => continuously used to train & improve AI capabilities

Question 5

According to Luhmann, what does it mean to say that “Decisions are observations”?

Answer 5

decisions are a form of observation: using alternatives (sub-decisions) => a decision observes by creating distinctions & indicating what is chosen (observed) & what is not chosen (unobserved)

Question 6

What is a “second-order observation,” and why is it useful?

Answer 6

observing observers while they are observing => reveal distinctions they are making & perspectives they are taking => can help identify blind spots of the initial observer

Question 7

What is the paradox of decision-making?

Answer 7

one can only decide what is fundamentally undecidable: decisions reduce complexity by excluding alternatives but increase future possibilities by enabling new courses of action

Question 8

How does Niklas Luhmann suggest solving the problem of causal attribution when defining a decision?

Answer 8

“action” (stuck in endless causal attribution loops) -> focus on “observation” as the basis for defining a decision=> internal will -> focus on observable act of making distinctions

Question 9

What are roles in the context of Applied Systems Theory and what function do they serve?

Answer 9

generalized behavioural expectations within a social system => provide repeatable, consensus-based patterns of behaviour => help structure social order & interactions => simplify complexity

Question 10

Why is it important to differentiate between action & behaviour when applying Systems Theory concepts?

Answer 10

action (thinking, psyche) vs. behaviour (communication, social system) => individual person (capable of thinking/action) represents roles = expectations of behaviour within a social system.
Mixing these can lead to fixed attributions or incorrectly identifying a person with a role!