10 The European Union Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
What key cultural context does the EU have?
A
Post-war consensus - a strong desire in postwar Europe for WW2 to be the last of the great European wars
2
Q
What are the 3 aims of the European project?
A
- Economic recovery and prosperity across Western Europe
- Upholding democratic values and human rights after the fall of Nazism
- Reconciliation, peace and friendship between former allies, and an end to hostile nationalism
3
Q
How has the EU’s name changed over its lifetime?
A
- European Coal and Steel Community 1952
- European Economic Community 1958
- European Community 1967
- European Union 1993
4
Q
What is the key principle of the EU project?
A
“Ever closer union” - The EU will, in theory, evolve ever closer together, with eventual national union very much an option
5
Q
What are the 13 key moments in the development of the EU?
A
- 1951 Treaty of Paris
- 1957 Treaty of Rome
- 1973 Enlargement Round 1
- 1985 Single European Act
- 1985 Schengen Agreement
- 1992 Maastricht Treaty
- 1995 Enlargement Round 2
- 1997 Amsterdam Treaty
- 1999 Eurozone created
- 2001 Nice Treaty
- 2004 Enlargement Round 3
- 2007 Lisbon Treaty
- 2016 Brexit
6
Q
What is the significance of the Treaty of Paris?
A
Established the European Coal and Steel Community, a common market in coal and steel. Set up a High Authority to govern market conduct.
Only 6 countries, purely economic, and UK was excluded by Charles de Gaulle.
7
Q
What is the significance of the 1957 Treaty of Rome?
A
- Created the EEC and a wider common market
- Expanded scope of institution into areas such as agriculture and tariffs policy
Important because it laid the ground for ever closer union. But still economic and membership still constrained to original six.
8
Q
What is the significance of the 1973 Enlargement Round 1?
A
Denmark, Ireland and the UK joined, leading to further expansion.
9
Q
What was the further expansion of the EU after Enlargement Round 1?
A
Greece 1981, Spain and Portugal 1986.
10
Q
What is the significance of the Single European Act 1985?
A
Created a single European market in all areas. QMV, rather than unanimity, was adopted for votes on single market conduct.
QMV gives legitimacy for further legislation. Furthermore, single market enhances trade.
11
Q
What is the significance of the Schengen Agreement 1985?
A
Created a single travel area inside the EEC.
UK and Ireland secured an opt out.
12
Q
What is the significance of Enlargement Round 2?
A
3 more countries joined the EU - Austria, Finland and Sweden.
13
Q
What other country had an experience similar to Brexit?
A
Norwegian voters rejected EU accession after negotiations were completed in 1972.
14
Q
What is the significance of the Maastricht Treaty?
A
- Created the EU
- Established a timeline for monetary union and increased collaboration in foreign and security policy.
UK deeply suspicious - 22 Maastricht rebels very nearly brought down Major government over this agreement, including support from Thatcher.
15
Q
What is the significance of the Amsterdam Treaty 1997?
A
Extended the role of the EU into further areas such as immigration and security. Amended Treaty of Rome.
Important for its declaration of ever closer union.
16
Q
Why is the Amsterdam Treaty often seen as a turning point in European integration?
A
Amended Treaty of Rome to say it represents the steps being taken towards ‘ever closer union’.
Clear statement of intent.
17
Q
What is the significance of the Eurozone?
A
Eleven countries adopted the Euro. The European Central Bank gained operational control.
Four countries did not join. The subsequent crises in the Euro undermined confidence.
18
Q
How has the Euro aged well? Badly?
A
- 8 countries have joined since 1999, which is good.
- The Greek crisis which was bad.
19
Q
What did the Nice Treaty do?
A
Created a European security and defence policy.
Was seen as a flawed compromise because different countries wanted different things - Amsterdam Treaty had been violated.
20
Q
What is the significance of 2004 Enlargement Round 3?
A
Largest single influx of new members, many new countries after the Cold War. 10 joined.
21
Q
What are the 3 joiners after 2004 Enlargement Round 3?
A
- Bulgaria 2007
- Romania 2007
- Croatia 2013
22
Q
What is the significance of the Lisbon Treaty 2007?
A
Reformed EU institutions, including introducing QMV for over 45 policy areas. Instituted a President of the European Council and High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.
23
Q
What is the significance of Brexit?
A
52-48% leave. UK first country ever to leave.
24
Q
What is the counter-eval to Brexit?
A
6 countries in 2020 waiting for accession, including Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Turkiye and Ukraine.
25
What is qualified majority voting and its evaluation?
Council of the European Union - for votes, 55% of countries must vote in favour, and they must constitute at least 65% of total EU population. Ensures that no country can block amendments, but can lead to gridlock or to large countries bullying the small.
26
What are the 'Four Freedoms' of the EU?
1. Freedom of movement of people
2. Freedom of movement of services - qualifications equal across the zone
3. Freedom of movement of capital - move money and capital across EU without restrictions
4. Freedom of movement of goods - free trade within the single market
## Footnote
Primarily economic. Also, Ireland and UK secured exemption from Schengen, so not binding.
27
What evidence shows QMV is effective?
83% of votes passed without the use of QMV, either unanimous or with minimal opposition. So rarely used.
28
What evidence shows QMV is ineffective?
1. 2015 - immigration quotas highly polarised and passed with large opposition.
2. Structural minorities and alienation - UK most voted against country, a key reason we felt alienated.
29
What evidence shows the European Single Market is effective?
2/3 of all goods produced in the EU are exported to another EU country.
30
What are 4 aims which are not the Four Freedoms that the EU seeks to promote?
1. Peace and Stability
2. Promotion of economic growth
3. Promotion of individual rights and freedoms
4. Integration into an ever closer union
31
How well does the EU accomplish its objective of promoting peace and stability?
Incredibly well.
## Footnote
1. Investment in former East European countries helped reduce potential for counter-insurgency and civil war.
2. Integration of post-Yugoslav states e.g. Serbia and Croatia was a key step towards reconciliation.
32
What is a counter eval to the EU's success at promoting peace and stability?
Despite huge transfer payments, East Germany still pretty irredentist.
33
What facts show EU's commitment to Eastern European development?
1. 8 billion Euros in 2024 to help get Moldova ready for EU membership.
2. Several institutions such as the Eastern Partnership or European Bank for Reconstruction and Development have invested loads. In 2024 alone, EBRD spent 16.6 billion across development projects, with a significant amount in Eastern Europe.
## Footnote
UK didn't like these large transfer payments.
34
What evidence shows the EU has had success promoting economic growth and prosperity?
1. Ireland miracle - 1995-2000 9.4% growth.
2. 15% growth in EU GDP since 1992.
35
What evidence shows the EU has not been successful in promoting economic growth across member states?
1. Germany GDP/PC 5x Bulgaria.
2. Eurozone crises e.g. Greece austerity.
3. Red tape argument.
36
What fact shows Ireland's economic miracle was down in no small part to EU help?
Since joining in 1973, Ireland has received over 17 billion Euros in funding.
37
Why was Greece's eurozone crisis damaging to the EU?
1. Damaged credibility - Eurozone blamed for mismatched exchange rates that had led to Greece's huge trade deficit and structural deficit from EU spending commitments.
2. 53% have a negative view of the EU.
38
What was Ireland's economic miracle nicknamed?
Celtic Tiger.
39
What is an example of EU 'red tape'?
GDPR - introduced 2018. Many SMEs deterred by admin costs.
40
What is a counter eval to EU red tape?
Feb 2025 - European Commission announced plans to slim down regulation.
41
How successful has the EU been in promoting individual rights and freedoms across Europe?
Mixed picture.
42
What are 3 examples of how the EU has upheld individual rights?
1. Working Time Directive 2003 - no more than 48 hours, excluding overtime, for a 7 day working period.
2. EHIC card, reciprocal healthcare.
3. Erasmus grants - study overseas.
43
What are 2 counter-evals to the idea that the EU has upheld individual rights?
1. Immigration and free movement has led to tensions - many people voted UKIP because of this.
2. 1.8 million asylum seekers entered Europe in 2015 alone, many fleeing Syria.
44
Why does migration threaten the EU's mission to uphold individual rights and freedoms?
Creates tensions with member states and conflicts between individual rights of migrants and collective rights of accommodating countries.
45
What are competences?
The areas of policy which the EU has control over.
46
What are 3 arguments that EU integration has been successful?
1. 1999 and the adoption of a single currency in 19 member states.
2. More economic policy integration e.g. ban on chlorinated chicken.
3. Structural changes e.g. the EU flag and the concept of a single passport/Schengen Area.
47
What are 3 ways integration presented tension in the EU?
1. Euroscepticism vindicated e.g. Brexit.
2. Tensions between rich and poor e.g. Germany subsidising Greece or Greece feeling dictated to.
3. Bureaucracy unwieldy/implacable in face of crisis.
48
What is an example of a time the EU was not flexible in lieu of a crisis?
COVID-19.
49
What are 3 facts about EU's response to COVID-19?
1. France, Germany and several Western European countries rejected EU attempts to lift controls on the export of protective medical gear.
2. Schengen Agreement overruled with closed border policies.
## Footnote
ON THE OTHER HAND
1. ECB issues 1.25 trillion in aid, first in 500 billion rescue and von der Leyen calls for 750 billion more.
50
What are 4 arguments that the EU has achieved its aims?
1. Half a billion people participate in the European single market, and this has been great for prosperity.
2. The EU has taken measures to expand individual rights e.g. Schengen and Working Time Directive 2003.
3. Large scale support, e.g. during COVID-19, is now available.
4. Development and peaceful transition was achieved in most of Eastern Europe.
51
What are 3 arguments the EU has not achieved its aims? Incidentally, what is a key fact about ECHR membership and EU membership?
1. Foreign policy remains decentralised.
2. Populist parties e.g. in Hungary create structural minorities and Euroscepticism is on the rise.
3. Opt-outs e.g. 8 members not in the single currency.
ALL EU MEMBER STATES ARE ALSO IN THE ECHR - Copenhagen criteria for membership does not specify ECHR, but realistically it is the only way to satisfy the requirement to have stringent rights law.
52
What evidence shows foreign policy may be centralising?
2025 - Zelensky and Luc Frieden (PM of Luxemburg) have called for a European army.
53
What is an example of how authoritarianism is on the rise across the EU?
1. Hungary and the border fence.
2. Poland and Article 2 abortion bans.
54
What are 2 reasons we might accuse the EU of being elitist?
1. 2/3 of trade within the Eurozone really helps big exporters like Germany.
2. Countries like Turkiye and Ukraine are being stopped from membership. EU can discern.
55
What are the 5 key institutions of the EU?
1. European Commission
2. Council of the European Union
3. European Council
4. European Parliament
5. Court of Justice of the European Union
56
What are the 2 types of EU institution?
1. INTRAGOVERNMENTAL - composed of representatives of national governments.
2. SUPRANATIONAL - exist above and apart from national governments.
57
Which EU institutions are intragovernmental? Which are supranational?
Intragovernmental - Council of the European Union and the European Council.
Supranational - European Commission, European Parliament, Court of Justice of the European Union.
58
Where is the EU Commission located?
Brussels.
59
What is the composition of the EU Commission? Who is the current President?
SUPRANATIONAL - 27 commissioners, led by the commission President, who allocates responsibilities for policy areas.
## Footnote
Current President is Ursula von der Leyen.
60
What is the approval process for the EU Commission President?
Nominated by the European Council and subsequently approved by a vote in the European Parliament.
61
How are individual Commissioners for the EU Commission selected?
Chosen by governments and ratified by European Parliament.
62
What are 3 roles of the European Commission?
1. Propose new laws to the European Parliament.
2. Has a civil service role in ensuring EU laws are upheld.
3. Represents EU internationally.
63
What civil service role does the European Commission have?
1. 'Guardian of the Treaties' - protector of laws and such.
2. Oversees the execution of policies.
64
What are 4 ways the European Commission resembles the executive branch?
1. Has a President who represents the EU (Ursula von der Leyen).
2. Each Commissioner is assigned a policy area, like in the Cabinet.
3. Proposes legislation to Parliament.
4. Directives.
65
What is an example of the European Commission operating its budget?
June 2020 - announces 9% cut to Common Agricultural Policy due to oversupply.
66
What is an example of a directive issued by the European Commission?
1982 - Seveso Directive. 12,000 affected establishments. Outlines rules on storage of dangerous substances in oil and chemical industries.
67
Where is the Council of the European Union located?
Brussels.
68
What is the membership of the Council of the European Union?
Government ministers from each EU state, decided by Government. Membership changes depending on the issue being discussed.
69
What are 5 roles of the Council of the European Union?
1. Legislative role - works alongside European Parliament in 'CO-DECISION' to enact legislation.
2. Has responsibility for some areas of policy where strategic coordination is seen as important e.g. defence and economic policy.
3. TOGETHER WITH THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, approves the annual budget.
4. Ratifies international treaties.
5. Approves directives and policy of the Commission
70
Membership of Council of the European Union?
Government ministers from each EU state, decided by Government. Membership changes depending on the issue being discussed.
71
4 roles of the Council of the European Union
1. Legislative role - works alongside European Parliament in 'CO-DECISION' to enact legislation.
2. Has responsibility for some areas of policy where strategic coordination is seen as important e.g. defence and economic policy.
3. TOGETHER WITH THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, approves the annual budget.
4. Ratifies international treaties.
72
How democratic is the Council of the EU?
QMV used, but unanimity required in some areas including foreign policy and taxation.
73
Why is the Council of the EU somewhat inflexible?
Membership rotates each 6 months to reflect a new agenda. If an emergency arises, the membership will not be rotated for 6 months.
74
Location of the European Council?
Brussels, except during April, June and October when meetings are held in Luxembourg.
75
Membership of the European Council
1. Quarterly meetings of the leaders of all member states.
2. A President is chosen by the Council for a 5 year term. THE PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL IS THEREFORE A HEAD OF STATE.
76
If a leader is selected to be President of the European Council, and subsequently leaves office in their home country, do they continue as leader of the European Council until the end of their 5 year term?
It is actually a 2.5 year term, renewed. And also, they relinquish office of their home state when they become leader of the European Council, so no.
77
Example of a leader who stood down to become President of the European Council?
2019 - Charles Michel as PM of Belgium.
78
If someone steps down before the end of their term as President of the European Council...
The Council has to pick an interim, which is usually the national representative of the country holding the office, in this case the Belgian PM.
79
3 roles of the European Council
1. Agenda-setting.
2. Strategic direction.
3. Organising crisis response.
80
Example of the Council of the EU at work?
2019 trade deal with Japan.
81
Example of the European Council at work?
Formulated response to the 2022 Ukraine War and Brexit.
82
Location of European Parliament?
Strasbourg, with some meetings in Luxembourg, and secretariat based in Brussels.
83
Membership of European Parliament?
705 MEPs directly elected by member states. Proportional to population.
84
Example of how MEPs are proportional to population size?
Germany has 96, Malta has 6.
85
What parties are there in the European Parliament?
European parties e.g. European People's Party.
86
What system is used to elect MEPs?
D'Hondt Party List PR.
87
3 roles of the European Parliament
1. Approve the annual EU budget.
2. Amend and veto legislation proposed by the Council of the European Union.
3. Confirm the appointment of Commissioners.
88
What happens if the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament disagree, given their 'co-decision' powers?
The law fails. There needs to be unanimity.
89
What are the two legislative processes in the EU and why is one potentially undemocratic?
1. Ordinary legislative procedure - European Commission proposes legislation. Parliament and Council of the EU may then amend and subsequently approve.
2. But under SPECIAL LEGISLATIVE PROCEDURES, different rules apply. One set of rules says that the Council of the EU can institute laws with only the consultation, not approval of the Parliament.
90
2 examples of EU Parliament at work
1. Rovana Plumb 2019 - Romanian nominee. Irregularities in her wealth declaration.
2. New EU copyright law in 2019 - Article 11 and 13.
91
What was the copyright law approved in 2019?
'MEME BAN' - Called on social media to better protect intellectual property shared on their platforms.
92
Example of Parliament being overruled by the Council and what happened?
1979 EU directive passed without Parliament's approval. But ECJ struck it down (SA Roquette Freres v Council).
93
Example of pressure groups at the EU level?
YouTube and others opposed the 2019 copyright law.
94
Location of the Court of Justice of the European Union?
Luxembourg.
95
2 courts within the Court of Justice of the European Union?
1. Court of Justice.
2. General Court.
96
What does the Court of Justice do?
Provides preliminary rulings.
97
General Court of the ECJ?
Provides cases related to the legality of EU legislation, rather than preliminary rulings. Often in commercial/competition policy.
98
Membership of ECJ v GC? Significance?
ECJ - 27 judges (1 per state) plus 11 Advocates General. GC - 54 judges (2 per state) and NO Advocates General. Advocates General provide apolitical advice.
99
3 roles of the Court of Justice of the EU?
1. Ensure uniform implementation of EU laws across states.
2. Clarify the meaning of EU law.
3. JUDICIAL REVIEW.
100
Who often refers suspected violations of EU law to the Court?
European Commission.
101
How can the ECJ exercise judicial review?
CAN INVALIDATE EU LAWS WHICH VIOLATE EU TREATIES OR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS. CAN INVALIDATE NATIONAL LAW.
102
Example of ECJ judicial review against the EU over EU law?
2020 - General Court overrules Commission's decision to block the merger of O2 and Three, violates EU laws.
103
Give an example of ECJ judicial review being used against a national government to overturn a national law
Factortame WAS AN ECJ CASE AT ONE POINT and struck down the Merchant Shipping Act. Articles of the law were repealed.
104
Example of ECJ judicial review against the EU over EU treaties/inalienable rights?
2020 - strikes down US-EU Privacy Shield framework governing transatlantic data transfers, because it did not provide adequate protection for EU citizen's data.
105
4 impacts of EU membership on UK politics?
1. Judiciary.
2. Political parties.
3. Government policy making.
4. Sovereignty/constitutional impacts.
106
Who emphasised the impacts of EU membership on the UK court system and what did they postulate?
Professor Vernon Bogdanor - UK courts had essentially become constitutional courts for EU law.
107
2 ways EU membership influenced sovereignty?
1. EU law was supreme to UK law and, where contradictions existed, UK law could be invalidated. This restriction represented a clear limitation of parliamentary sovereignty.
2. Referendums increasingly used.
108
How did the use of referendums concerning EU membership influence sovereignty?
The EEC referendum in 1975 was the first major UK wide referendum, and the use of referendums was largely popularised after this vote.
109
Example of parliamentary sovereignty being challenged by EU law, reducing government's ability to act?
The campaign to repeal VAT on female hygiene products to help end 'period poverty' met difficulty due to EU rules on varying rates of VAT.
110
In what way was parliamentary sovereignty not totally constrained by EU membership?
Retained the right to leave, as we subsequently did in 2020.
111
Give an example of a way government strategic policy making was affected by EU membership?
Government found it harder to bail out industries because of threat to EU competition laws e.g. O2 and Three merger initially blocked. The UK's neoliberal revolution was arguably expedited by membership of the EU.
112
In what other major way did EU membership and its consequences influence government policy?
Brexit - tortuous membership rules meant that negotiation to leave was made harder. 2017-20 gridlock in Parliament.
113
Why should EU influence over government policy making not be overstated?
Substantial areas of retained control e.g. education policy.
114
What was Factortame?
A series of cases where UK courts ruled they could execute the role of the CJEU and suspend laws violating EU laws and treaties pending consultation by the CJEU.
115
2 ways EU membership divided parties?
1. Tories recently divided e.g. IDS resignation in 2016.
2. Labour - EEC referendum necessary to overcome divisions. By 1983, withdrawal was on the manifesto.
116
Example of how the EU actually united some parties?
Became a central tenet of the SDP-Liberal merger in 1988 and subsequent Lib Dem policy.
117
How did EU membership influence voting behaviour?
Voting behaviour in the EU referendum and for/against the EU was clearly class and age split.
118
How democratic is the EU?
To an extent: 1. Parliament is elected and shares co-decision. On the other hand: 1. Treaties have power. 2. Councils set agenda etc.
119
Current size of the Eurozone?
20/27 states.
120
Which EU body proposes new laws to the EU Parliament?
European Commission ONLY
121
There are no fixed members of the CotEU. How are members selected?
There are ten sectional councils dealing with specific policy areas e.g. Agriculture and Fisheries.
122
Main decision making body of the EU?
CotEU
123
Example of the European Council at work?
Led the negotiations between the EU and the UK after Brexit
124
EU legislative process?
1. Commission makes a recommendation
2. CotEU marks it up and sends it to the Parliament
125
What does the General Court do most of the time?
Deals mainly with competition law and commercial issues
126
Example of how the Commission and the CJEU do not necessarily agree?
2020 - O2 and Three merger allowed when CJEU blocks a Commission veto
127
Where are the 4 Freedoms set down?
1957 Treaty of Rome
128
2 ways social rights have been expanded by the EU?
1. Social Chapter - 1992 Maastricht - collective rights e.g. worker's rights and the limits of social policy
2. Charter of Fundamental Rights - 2007 Lisbon Treaty - limits of EU powers
129
Is the Social Chapter mandatory? What does it do?
It is not mandatory. Tony Blair signed us up in 1997
Protection for workers - 30 principles
130
Evidence rights have deteriorated due to Brexit?
Social Chapter - leaving and it became part of UK law, but can be derogated etc. 2023.
131
What things are in the Charter of Fundamental Rights and when does it apply?
Basic rights such as the right to life, votes and a fair trial
132
Size of Eurozone?
20 states in the Eurozone
133
4 policy instruments of the EU?
1. Regulations - laws implemented by the EU
2. Treaties - agreements between EU states
3. Directives of the European Commission
4. CJEU rulings
134
Example of a directive?
2013 Industrial Emissions Directive
135
Example of how a common policy can backfire?
25% ish of EU funding is CAP funding
136
When was the single market created? What does it have?
1993, having been planned for the in the 1985 SEA - 4 freedoms of movement
137
Why was the Social Chapter a mixed picture?
Not popular in the UK because it raised costs
138
How has the EU drawn towards a common fiscal policy?
2017 - attempts to coordinate fiscal policy
139
Why was the common fisheries policy controversial?
UK fishermen disadvantaged
140
Who was Robert Schuman and what did he emphasise?
A founding father of the EU
Integration would be slow and gradual
141
When did the EU gain control of immigration and security affairs?
1997 Amsterdam Treaty
142
When was explicit "ever-closer union" added to the Treaty of Rome?
1997 Amsterdam Treaty
143
When did the EU get a defence and security policy and eval?
2001 Nice Treaty
Still decentralised in practice - Luc Frieden and Zelensky in 2025
144
When was QMV introduced and expanded?
Introduced - 1985 SEA
Expanded - 2007 Lisbon Treaty to cover 45 policy areas
145
Who represents the EU internationally?
European Commission
146
How does the European Commission have a judicial role?
It can refer suspected violations of EU law to the CJEU
147
Main decision-making body of the EU?
The Council of the EU, which has 10 sectional councils and decides on European Commission proposals using QMV
148
When does the COTEU not use QMV?
In some policy areas where unanimity is required e.g. foreign policy and taxation
149
What link is there between the European Council and the European Commission?
The Commission President (von der Leyen) attends European Council meetings
150
What role does the European Council have?
Agenda setting and strategic direction
151
Example of a European Parliament grouping?
European People's Party
152
Basic EU legislative process?
1. European Commission proposes
2. COTEU approves
3. European Parliament approves
153
Did the UK accept the Charter of Fundamental Rights as legally binding?
Publicly no
154
What judicial power is shared between EU states?
Common arrest policy
155
How are judges appointed to the CJEU? The President of each court?
6 year terms for judges, appointed by national governments. 3 year term for the Court president, elected out of the rest of the court
156
Can EU court cases be overridden by any other judicial body?
No
157
Which law was invalidated by the Factortame cases?
Merchant Shipping Act 1988
158
