5 Politics in the Age of Total War Flashcards
(195 cards)
1
Q
What are 6 effects of World War One on politics?
A
- Creates fascism
- Eliminates a disproportionately high number of aristocrats and Burke’s paternalistic elite
- Has a revolutionary effect on women
- Massively increases the role of the state
- Destroys free trade
- Creates the first communist state
2
Q
How should WW1 be viewed in the context of the 20th century?
A
Much of what happened later in the century was a product, directly or indirectly, of WW1
3
Q
Why was WW1 different as a war?
A
The scale of civilian casualties, and subsequently the size of reparations. The idea of ‘total war’ and the subsequent effect on fascism.
4
Q
What are 2 examples of how class distinction was undermined by the First World War?
A
- The notion of ‘Lions led by Donkeys’ at the Somme etc.
- Class-based hierarchy disrupted by the meritocratic structure of the military. Encouraged fascism.
5
Q
What are 4 ways WW1 influenced economics?
A
- Soaring national debt normalised big government
- Trade - trade driven down, not to recovery to prewar levels until 1993 (as a proportion of GDP)
- Free movement of people
- Tax rates - from 7% US income tax in 1913 to 77% for top earners by war’s end.
6
Q
Why did the Geddes Axe polarise politics?
A
Many had come to normalise big government.
7
Q
What are 3 ways WW1 affects conservatism?
A
- Hobbesian views of human nature (bellum omnium contra omnes) upheld
- Failure of the paternalistic elite as espoused by Burke ‘lions led by donkeys’
- Rapid changes in the societal makeup and world order not ‘change to conserve’.
8
Q
What are 3 ways liberalism is affected by WW1? Caveat?
A
- Optimism and linear historicism undermined
- Free-market economics undermined
- Natural rights including to property increasingly infringed upon by governments
Still a war about the preservation of property, and huge 6.6 billion in reparations suggest damage to property taken seriously.
9
Q
Which ideology does the best out of WW1 and how?
A
Socialism
- USSR created
- Viability of state intervention demonstrated
- Collective struggle
- New expectations of the state
- Disdain for the elite.
10
Q
What are 3 ways feminism is emboldened by WW1?
A
- Men die and so marriage is put off. Many women begin to pursue alternatives to marriage, including further education. ‘Lost generation’.
- The equal economic relations between men and women clearly function.
- Demonstrate the parity between the sexes.
11
Q
How was communist economics successful in the USSR? Eval?
A
Gosplan - central planning bureau - highly centralised, Webb style planning department. Industrial output rose MORE THAN 3 FOLD 1921-25
Although subsequently adopted the New Economic Policy (mixed economy) to grow faster. ‘COMMANDING HEIGHTS’.
12
Q
What is the context for Trotsky?
A
Military commander during the Civil War.
13
Q
What are 2 key beliefs of Trotsky?
A
- The revolution will spread around the world via a global revolution.
- The revolution will be PERMANENT REVOLUTION - subsequent constant struggle to impose communism.
14
Q
What are 2 key beliefs of Stalin?
A
- ‘SOCIALISM IN ONE COUNTRY’.
- Forced collectivisation.
15
Q
How is forced collectivisation more radical than Lenin?
A
NEP was mixed sector, forced collectivisation is openly communist.
16
Q
What is the relevance of Gramsci?
A
The most important Western Marxist.
17
Q
What are 5 elements of Gramscian hegemony?
A
- People ACTIVELY CONSENT to capitalism.
- This is because they have been conditioned by ‘HEGEMONIC IDEAS’, via cultural channels such as media.
- Problems are atomised and ‘COMMON SENSE’ solutions are applied.
- States will negotiate and concede over individual errors, but this is a delay tactic. REJECTION OF EVOLUTIONARY SOCIALISM; existing state denies the existential nature of social problems.
- ‘COMMON SENSE’ does not challenge the fundamental nature of things, which, whenever challenged, is described as ‘just the way things are’.
18
Q
What is the context for Gramsci?
A
Attempting to lead the Communist Party of Italy, imprisoned.
19
Q
Which party governed the UK for most of the 20th century? Why is this surprising?
A
Conservative Party
1918 Representation of the People Act - one would suspect it would be the Labour Party.
20
Q
What ideology did conservatism adopt during the twentieth century?
A
The ‘middle way’.
21
Q
What is the ‘middle way’?
A
An ideology that respects property rights, national identity and tradition whilst also expressing disdain for the effects of free market capitalism and economic inequality.
22
Q
What are 3 examples of pre-war ‘middle way’ Conservatism?
A
- Appeasement and the movement to preserve peace in Europe.
- 1935-37 Public Health, Housing and Factory Acts.
- 1928 Representation of the People Act.
23
Q
How did socialists criticise conservatism’s reproachment with socialist ideas?
A
Anthony Crosland called it ‘plagiarising’.
24
Q
What happens to conservatism’s link to imperialism during the interwar period?
A
Softens.
25
Who was Rab Butler? Significance?
Richard Austen Butler
## Footnote
Welfare state similarity to Hugh Gaitskell led to 'Butskellism'.
26
What was Rab Butler's book called and what does this encapsulate?
The Art of the Possible
## Footnote
Conservatism's concern with what is empirically possible, not what is most desirable.
27
What is an example of modern one-nationism and comment?
Nick Timothy 2020, Remaking One Nation
## Footnote
'Leftwards economically; anti-leftwards culturally'.
28
Why does American conservatism resemble aspects of liberalism and how does this come into the fore in the latter half of the twentieth century?
American tradition is liberal - the Revolution and the liberal context etc.
## Footnote
Neoliberalism and the synthesis of conservatism with classical liberalism.
29
What are 4 ways American conservatism dominated the 1920s?
1. Race relations and immigration
2. Prohibition
3. Crackdown on radical groups
4. Economy
5. Election results.
30
What are 3 examples of how race relations and immigration were conservative in the 1920s US?
1. KKK membership soared to 5% of population by 1920.
2. 1921 Emergency Immigration Act and 1924 Immigration Act.
3. Increased lynchings.
31
Was female suffrage smooth sailing in the US?
No.
## Footnote
25 of the 96 Senators opposed passing the amendment, and there were abstentions. Southern States tried to block. Racial arguments were used i.e. counteract African American vote. Need for women to get Prohibition.
32
What split was there in Prohibition thinking?
Urban dwellers saw it as an imposition whereas rural dwellers generally supported the measures.
33
What is an example of how prohibition was actually fairly successful?
30% fall 1919-1933 during period of prohibition.
34
What are 2 ways Prohibition was traditional conservative?
Hobbes and the emphasis on the moral rule of the centre:
1. Stop immigrants from drinking.
2. Stop Catholics from drinking.
3. Stop urban dwellers from drinking.
35
What are 2 examples of political crackdowns in the 1920s?
1. Eugene V Debs, American Socialist Party leader and perennial third party candidate, arrested.
2. January 1920 ALONE 10,000 arrested for thought crimes.
36
What is an example of how the 1920s were an economically liberal time in the US?
1920 - 5 million union members
1929 - 3.5 million.
37
What are 2 ways American politics was conservative during the 1920s? Eval?
1. Republican trifecta for the entire decade.
2. Huge margins of victory e.g. 1920 60% of vote for GOP candidate.
## Footnote
Democrats are not woke at this point.
38
What are 3 ways WW1 foreshadowed fascism?
1. Created the infrastructure of the powerful state.
2. The creation of a military citizenship with collective ambitions.
3. Imperialism and contempt for democracy become mainstream.
39
What are 3 definitions of fascism and significance?
1. Negations
2. Goals
3. Style
## Footnote
Negations are what they stand against, which is really compelling in early fascist movements of war-torn Europe. Goals are dirigisme economics, centralised and hierarchical society and imperialism. Style is aestheticism but also a romanticism, a certain appreciation and idolisation of violence and martyrs.
40
What feedback does fascism take from liberalism?
Obsession with progress, natural laws (in this case of strength and the legitimacy of violence before state law) and eugenics.
41
What feedback does fascism take from socialism?
Collective economics, citizenship solidarity, flexibility and adaptability of human nature, hatred of capitalism, creation of a post-class state.
42
What feedback does fascism take from conservatism?
PALEO-CONSERVATIVE - obsession with tradition, hierarchy, the innate inequality of peoples, nostalgia.
43
What is the main difference between fascism and conservatism?
Approach to mechanism - conservative organicism allows such tradition to emerge dynamically, fascism is obsessed with creating it via social engineering.
44
What are 3 views of Benedetto Croce? Eval?
1. Liberismo - how to apply liberal economics when potentially not a liberal himself.
2. Liberalismo - how to apply liberal principles to government and society when not a liberal.
3. Seeks to form a synthesis between conservatism and liberalism.
## Footnote
FORESHADOWS NEOLIBERALISM. Croce is active during fascism.
45
What are 3 views of John Dewey? Eval?
American liberal
1. Liberalism is not composed of philosophical constants, it evolves.
2. Modern context challenges old liberal assumptions.
3. Liberalism is too cold, capitalism doesn't work. We lack the romantic appeal of fascism.
## Footnote
MORE CONSERVATIVE/LIBERAL SYNTHESIS (evolution).
46
What are 2 examples of how post-war economics crystallised around Keynesianism?
1. Richard Nixon 'we are all Keynesians now'.
2. Butskellism.
47
How was the postwar geopolitical order different from what had come before?
US hegemony, dominating NATO and the UN.
48
What are 3 facts about Keynesianism?
1. 1936 General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.
2. Popularised by failure of neoclassical economics, also by socialist pressure and Beveridge Report.
3. Adopted across the spectrum.
49
What are 5 economic hallmarks of the later twentieth century?
1. Deindustrialisation
2. Decolonisation and subsequent exchange rate depreciation
3. Demand-side Keynesian intervention
4. US economic dominance
5. Supply-side atrophies.
50
Who built on Keynes' ideas in the UK? How?
William Beveridge, 1944 Beveridge Report or Social Insurance and Allied Services Report.
51
Why are Keynes and Beveridge popular in the UK and not so much in the US?
Degree of wartime suffering
## Footnote
With much of Europe decimated, intervention is necessary anyway to stimulate the economy. And many Europeans feel that there has been enough suffering this century already.
52
Who campaigns on the platform of Beveridge/Keynesianism and eval?
Labour 1945 - Tories oppose with socialism fears and get absolutely, unremittently, mercilessly hammered at the polls.
## Footnote
Tories have to adapt, and abandon fear of bureaucracy.
53
What are the 5 giants of Beveridge's report? What ideology does this link to?
1. Want
2. Squalor
3. Idleness
4. Ignorance
5. Disease
## Footnote
NEW LIBERAL, and elements of classical liberalism with emphasis on education.
54
What influence did Keynesianism and the post-war consensus have on conservatism?
Following electoral rout of 1945, Tories forced to change direction and cautiously adopt. One-nationism returned to the fore, with Nixon declaring 'we are all Keynesians now'.
55
What influence did Keynesianism and the post-war consensus have on liberalism?
Gives a new direction to social policy, and vindicates the views of New Liberalism. Paves the way for John Rawls to make a synthesis.
56
Why does something of an 'ideological swap' go on during the later 20th century?
Conservatism and Liberalism - Conservative adoption of NEOLIBERALISM in the 1980s appropriates and synthesises many classically liberal ideas abandoned by new liberals.
57
What unexpected effect does Keynesianism and the post-war consensus have on socialism?
Reconciles many of their leading lights with capitalism.
58
Who was Willy Brandt and how did he epitomise post-war socialism's reconciliation with capitalism?
West German chancellor, leader of the SPD
1. Passed the Anti-Radical decree in 1972
2. Reconciled with the Soviet Union - Burkean pragmatism.
59
What are 2 liberal thinkers who emerge from the post-war consensus?
1. John Rawls
2. William Beveridge.
60
What are 2 conservative thinkers who emerge from the post-war consensus?
1. Michael Oakeshott
2. Harold Macmillan.
61
What are 2 socialist thinkers who emerge from the post-war consensus?
1. Anthony Crosland
2. Willy Brandt.
## Footnote
Do not overemphasise Anthony Giddens, who is more the product of the neoliberal revolution.
62
Who reacts against the postwar consensus and how?
FA Hayeck 1944 The Road to Serfdom
1. Central planning is destined to fail because information is decentralised.
2. Economic centralisation is always the precursor to tyranny (draws on his own experience observing the rise of the Nazis in his native Austria).
3. Wins the 1974 Nobel Prize for his research into the functions of the price mechanism and macroeconomic cycles.
63
How did America react against the post-war consensus and how does it foreshadow modern political divides?
GOP portrayed FDR as 'communist' with 'irreligion' at the heart of his tradition.
## Footnote
GOP and the wedding of free market economics to social conservatism was beginning.
64
What evidence is there that the American system was more neoliberal to start with?
Neoliberalism starts in America. Hayeck emigrates there after not encountering significant support at the LSE, and brings Ludwig von Mises with them. The Chicago School is born.
65
What view did Hayeck disagree with that was the premise of his book? What was Hayeck's view?
That fascism was a capitalist reaction against socialism - a popular view at the time.
## Footnote
Sought to reframe all tyranny in a similar way. Regardless of name or stated intent, all tyranny depends on economic control.
66
Who is the earliest revisionist and evolutionary socialist? Their thoughts?
Eduard Bernstein, 1898's Evolutionary Socialism
## Footnote
Capitalism should not be viewed through a purely historicist lens. It also has.
67
What view did Hayek disagree with that was the premise of his book?
That fascism was a capitalist reaction against socialism - a popular view at the time.
68
What was Hayek's view on tyranny?
All tyranny depends on economic control, regardless of name or stated intent.
69
Who is considered the earliest revisionist and evolutionary socialist?
Eduard Bernstein, author of 1898's Evolutionary Socialism.
70
What are Bernstein's key thoughts on capitalism?
1. Capitalism has legitimate value and appeal. 2. A socialist government can curb the excesses of capitalism for the benefit of the ordinary person.
71
What were Tony Benn's views?
1. Keynesianism had failed, and democratic socialism was the best way forward. 2. Socialism should be state-led and democratic. 3. 'Christian socialism.'
72
What was the immediate influence of Crosland's work?
The 1959 Bad Godesberg resolution, which rejected socialism by the SPD.
73
What was the Godesberg Program?
The 1959 SPD resolution at Bad Godesberg aimed to reform capitalism, not reject socialism, and asserted that private ownership can deliver social justice.
74
Did the UK Labour Party follow the SPD's lead?
No, they rejected amendments to Clause IV.
75
What are four personal context facts for Anthony Crosland?
1. Had a privileged upbringing; father worked at the War Office, mother was an academic. 2. Family from the Plymouth Brethren, later rejected this religion. 3. Attended Oxford and served in World War 2. 4. Labour MP from 1950-55, returned to Cabinet in 1965.
76
When was Crosland's magnum opus published and what was it?
The Future of Socialism, published in 1956.
77
What is a key quote from Crosland about the nature of the socialist?
In the blood of a socialist 'there should always run a trace of the anarchist and the libertarian, and not too much of the prig and the prude.'
78
What is the most important piece of historical context for Crosland?
The ascendancy of Keynesianism across the Western World.
79
What are two philosophical developments Crosland draws upon?
1. STATISM - the ability of the 20th century state to implement centralised reforms. 2. POST-CAPITALISM - capitalism as described by Marx has disappeared.
80
What are four views of Crosland on human nature?
1. Capitalism has not distorted human nature as Marx predicted. 2. Humans have an innate sense of fairness and unease with inequality. 3. Education is vital for self-fulfilment and should be available to all. 4. Humans are fundamentally equal, but foundational equality should prevail over equality of outcome.
81
What are four views of Crosland on society?
1. Class polarization forecasted by Marx has disappeared. 2. Excessive solidarity in socialist countries stifles creativity. 3. Social equality should be advanced based on sensitivity to inequality. 4. Comprehensive education is the best way to break down class divisions.
82
What is a key quote from Crosland about the change to society since Marx?
Society is now 'infinitely more complex than Marx could ever have imagined.'
83
What new classes did Crosland cite?
'Managers' and 'technocrats' - the petty bourgeoisie has expanded.
84
When did Crosland achieve his comprehensive education ambitions?
As Education Secretary from 1965-1967, he began the comprehensive school project.
85
What are four views of Crosland on the state?
1. The aims of socialism can be achieved without revolution through a democratic state. 2. Public ownership had gone far enough; it was a means, not the end. 3. The mixed economy is the final destination, not a stepping stone. 4. The state must provide comprehensive education.
86
What are three views of Crosland on the economy?
1. The post-war Keynesian order is permanent. 2. Keynes changed capitalism, allowing for full employment and growth without private ownership. 3. The energized private sector will provide tax revenues for the central government.
87
What is Bernstein's main argument?
Capitalism had not been as bad as predicted.
88
What is Crosland's view on private property?
Not necessarily a bad thing.
89
Do all democratic socialists believe in private property?
Not necessarily; for example, Beatrice Webb believed in public ownership in the long run.
90
What is a key feature of the managerial class in Crosland's view?
The white-collar managerial class runs the capitalist economy without owning it, making revolution less likely.
91
How did Crosland describe the mixed economy?
'Pragmatic blend of public and private ownership.'
92
When did Labour hear Crosland's appeal to scrap Clause IV?
At the 1959 Special Conference, which did not repeal it.
93
Why is Keynesianism referred to as 'managerial capitalism'?
Because the state controls tax rates and fiscal interventions to achieve desired economic effects.
94
Why was Crosland somewhat wrong about capitalism?
He believed Keynesianism had eliminated boom and bust, which was proven wrong in the 1970s.
95
Why was it important for Crosland's philosophy that Keynesianism delivered constant economic growth?
It provided enlarged tax revenue for public spending, fostering greater foundational equality.
96
What two movements is Crosland associated with?
Social democracy and revisionist socialism.
97
What is welfarism and who epitomizes it?
The idea that the state should provide a safety net to ensure foundational equality, epitomized by Anthony Crosland.
98
How can Crosland's belief in tax revenues financing greater public spending be described?
As a fiscal dividend.
99
How did Crosland believe inequality was good in the long run?
It would create more economic prosperity, funding greater public expenditure.
100
How did Crosland term the society he saw in postwar Europe?
'Postcapitalist society.'
101
Was America exempt from the Keynesian/welfare state?
No, Nixon stated, 'we are all Keynesians now.'
102
What is Crosland's argument of 'means' and 'ends'?
Socialists often confuse the means (nationalisation) and ends (improved social equality) of socialism.
103
Why did Crosland think Keynesianism had fundamentally changed capitalism?
It allowed for greater social equality without abolishing capitalism, which is still based on private property.
104
What was the 'good society' for Crosland?
A society of equality, but not uniformity of experience.
105
How did Crosland appeal to liberals?
By arguing that a child has the same right to an equal education as to life, liberty, and property.
106
How did Crosland describe public schools only being available for high-income children?
'An indefensible injustice.'
107
What is a key evaluation of Crosland's view on narrowing inequality?
Income and wealth inequality began to worsen again in the 1970s.
108
How does imperialism shape Crosland's views on education?
Through decolonisation and the reduced role of public schools in Empire.
109
How did Crosland show gradualism during his time in office?
By supporting the nationalisation of 25% of public school boarding facilities.
110
What are three facts about Revolutionary China?
1. The CCP led resistance against Japan in WWII. 2. Mao's agrarianism during the Great Leap Forward killed around 30 million. 3. The Cultural Revolution aimed to eliminate the capitalist legacy.
111
How does Maoism reflect traditional Marxist values?
Forced collectivisation and agrarianism reflect Marxist priorities.
112
What are three facts about Stalin's time as leader of the USSR?
1. Statism and socialism in one country. 2. Enforced collectivisation and famines. 3. Industrialisation.
113
How were Stalin and Mao similar?
Both emphasized forced collectivisation and rapid industrialisation.
114
How have socialist thinkers viewed the existence of capitalism?
1. Early socialists saw it as oppressive and in need of revolution. 2. Beatrice Webb drew on Evolutionary Socialism. 3. Revisionists like Crosland offered a different perspective.
115
What was Crosland's criticism of conservatism?
'Conservatives conserve no principles... they simply go along with whatever situation they inherit.'
116
Who said that Keynesianism was more naturally attuned to conservatism than liberalism?
Quintin Hogg in 1948.
117
What did RAB Butler argue in The Art of the Possible?
The Keynesian consensus was an update of timeless conservative beliefs.
118
Which thinker is associated with conservatism in the later 20th century?
Michael Oakeshott.
119
What are three pieces of personal context for Michael Oakeshott?
1. Comes from a middle-class socialist family. 2. Highly educated and accepted anarchism early on. 3. Served in WWII.
120
What are three pieces of historical context for Michael Oakeshott?
1. Labour election victories and the rise of Keynesian consensus. 2. End of imperialism and decline of UK's influence. 3. Need to reinvent conservatism after fascism.
121
What fundamental shift occurred by the time Oakeshott was writing?
Replacement of platoons with the statist monolith.
122
Is Oakeshott a Keynesian?
No, he rejects top-down planning.
123
What key philosophy is associated with Oakeshott?
Pragmatism.
124
Why does Oakeshott abandon socialism?
He is critical of Fabianism and centralisation.
125
What philosophical development influenced Oakeshott?
Hannah Arendt's fatalism and the Banality of Evil.
126
What are two key works of Oakeshott?
1. On Being Conservative 1962. 2. On Human Conduct.
127
Why was On Human Conduct poorly received?
It attempted to establish two kinds of society but was seen as esoteric.
128
What was Oakeshott's most famous pronouncement?
The Nautical Metaphor, stating the state ought to 'keep the ship afloat at all costs.'
129
What did Oakeshott's work On Being Conservative fundamentally bring?
A new interpretation of how conservatives regard human imperfection.
130
What was Oakeshott's view of human nature?
Most men and women were 'fallible but not terrible.'
131
How did Oakeshott portray human fulfilment?
Humans attain pleasure through everyday life, reflecting a more optimistic ideology.
132
What politics did Oakeshott reject?
'Normative' politics with simplistic visions.
133
What is Oakeshott's fundamental view of the state?
The state exists to 'prevent the bad rather than create the good.'
134
What is a criticism of Oakeshott?
He underestimates our ability to shape our destiny.
135
What is a quote of Oakeshott regarding human nature?
'Fallible but not terrible.'
136
What are four views of Oakeshott on human nature?
1. Humans are 'fallible but not terrible.' 2. Empiricism should be promoted over abstract theory. 3. Humans seek communal pleasure. 4. Humans are forgiving.
137
How is Oakeshott's view of human nature optimistic?
It reflects a belief in human potential and is echoed by others.
138
What are Oakeshott's views on human nature?
1. Humans are 'fallible but not terrible'.
2. Empiricism should be promoted over abstract theory.
3. Humans are hedonistic, seeking communal pleasure.
4. Humans are forgiving and strive to improve.
139
How is Oakeshott's view of human nature optimistic?
Oakeshott's view doesn't rely on development as liberalism does. Roger Scruton echoed this perspective.
140
What are Oakeshott's views on society?
1. Humans are incapable of the perfect society.
2. Striving for perfection overlooks the good elements of life.
3. Communities develop as refuges from fallibility.
4. Society cannot be directed or dictated.
141
What are Oakeshott's views on the state?
1. The state's role is to 'prevent the bad rather than create the good'.
2. The state is likened to a custodian.
3. Welfare state's obsession with ideals is detrimental.
4. Pragmatism, not dogmatism, is key.
142
What are Oakeshott's views on the economy?
1. The free market's 'remorseless rhythms' may threaten pragmatism.
2. Centrally planned economies neglect the state's pragmatic role.
3. Spontaneity in capitalism reflects unpredictable human nature.
143
Why is Oakeshott considered vague?
He is not a textbook; he writes a Constitution, not a cookbook.
144
What was George Bernard Shaw's political stance?
He was a British socialist and eugenicist.
145
What is Oakeshott's view on changing to conserve?
He embraces the 'doctrine of maintenance', rejecting iconoclasm while supporting meaningful reform.
146
How does Oakeshott's view of human nature differ from other conservative thinkers?
He rejects Hobbes' selfish rationalism, portraying humans as creatures of habit, instinct, impulse, and emotion.
147
Which societal view does Oakeshott share?
He shares Burke's view of 'little platoons'.
148
How did Oakeshott explain the power of the platoons?
Strong platoons can mitigate the domination of the state, as 'a strong society protects us from an over-mighty government'.
149
Who embraced Oakeshottian ideas about society?
David Cameron, promoting the 'big society and the small state'.
150
Why is the state role limited in Oakeshott's model?
The state and society are clearly separated.
151
How did Oakeshott extol empiricism?
He advocated proceeding on the basis of 'that which is known'.
152
How does Oakeshott reflect Hobbesian views of the state?
He emphasizes preventing the bad, with the state establishing common law.
153
What is the fundamental Oakeshottian view of the purpose of the state?
Conservatives should view the state as an end in itself, not a tool for other goals.
154
What does Oakeshott believe about state-led change?
It should respect our 'love of the familiar'.
155
Who was appalled by Oakeshott's nautical metaphor?
Margaret Thatcher and the New Right, who identified as 'conviction politicians'.
156
Did Oakeshott reduce conservatism to pragmatism?
No, he denied that conservatism is 'philosophically empty' and argued pragmatism reflects philosophical universals.
157
What was Oakeshott's early socialism like?
It was romantic and anarchistic, not truly economic.
158
What did Oakeshott think about political philosophy?
He derided it as inconsistent and emphasized politics/culture as topics for civilized conversation.
159
What are four reasons conservatism on the continent was different?
1. Transformation after WW2 due to Nazism.
2. More interventionist statism inherited from fascism.
3. Emphasis on religion and unity.
4. Inalienable rights.
160
Who were the first Keynesians on the continent?
The Christian Democrats/Conservatives.
161
How did the German constitution reflect Christian Democrat influence?
BASIC LAW includes judicial review to protect inalienable Christian rights against democracy.
162
How is the Christian Democrat welfare state different from the UK one?
It was more openly defensive of hierarchy and committed to religious constitutionalism.
163
How have conservative thinkers viewed the concept of the nation?
1. Hobbes: No society before the state.
2. Burke and Oakeshott: Society predates the state but needs it for moral authority.
3. Synthesis of one-nationism continues into the 21st century.
164
What is an example of female employment surge during WW1?
4000 women worked in heavy industry in Scotland pre-war; by war's end, 30,000 worked in munitions, making up 90% of the UK munitions workforce.
165
What did the WSPU do during WW1?
It became a patriotic movement and dissolved in 1917 after largely achieving its aims.
166
What is 'dilution'?
The supposed fear of immigrants or women bidding down wages.
167
How were women trained in WW1 jobs?
To a poorly skilled level to prevent 'dilution'.
168
What was the failure of the 1918 ROPA for female votes?
A majority of women still could not vote.
169
Why does feminism adapt after WWII?
Primary equality prerequisites exist but are not factually achieved, leading to second wave feminism.
170
What are key facts about existentialism?
1. Humans crave meaning, rejecting empirical ambition.
2. Rejection of essentialism and nihilism.
3. Existence precedes essence.
4. Absurdity in seeking meaning externally.
5. Overpowered by freedom, craving purpose.
171
What is 'bad faith' according to existentialists?
The rejection of the need for humans to seek their own meaning.
172
How did WWII impact feminism?
1. Female employment rose by 2 million.
2. Home front and front line blurred.
3. Post-war, women were expected to give way to men.
173
How does feminism seek to adapt after WWII?
By embracing existentialism to overcome societal limits.
174
What are three pieces of historical context affecting de Beauvoir?
1. WWII's effect on female employment.
2. Contraception and women in the workplace.
3. France lagging in women's rights until 1944.
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What are four pieces of personal context for de Beauvoir?
1. Loss of family wealth after WW1 led her to work.
2. Became the youngest to pass the agregation in philosophy.
3. Rejected monogamy and Catholicism.
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What are three key philosophical influences on de Beauvoir?
1. French existentialism, especially Jean-Paul Sartre.
2. Charlotte Perkins-Gilman's social element in female oppression.
3. Wollstonecraft's complicity in oppression.
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What are five views of de Beauvoir on human nature?
1. Humans need choice to live authentically.
2. Women are not biologically or intellectually inferior.
3. Sex is distinct from gender.
4. Women must fight for their own improvement.
5. Male and female antagonism is likely temporary.
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What is a key quote of de Beauvoir regarding gender?
'One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.'
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What are six views of de Beauvoir on society?
1. History cannot explain entrenched female inequality.
2. Sexual dimorphism does not favor men.
3. Society is split into 'one' and 'other'.
4. Women are not predisposed to certain roles.
5. Solidarity is needed for equality.
6. Freedom of opportunity does not equal equality of outcome.
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What is a famous de Beauvoir quote about women's status?
Women in modern society are treated as something 'intermediate between male and eunuch'.
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Was de Beauvoir pro-marriage?
No, she opposed it in her personal life.
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What are two views of de Beauvoir on the state?
1. The state is concerned with the 'one' in society.
2. Early advocate for abortion and state-provided female education.
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What are four views of de Beauvoir on the economy?
1. Men dominate economic life.
2. Encouraged female engagement in the economy.
3. Women's work is under-valued.
4. Economic independence underlines her opposition to marriage.
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Did de Beauvoir explicitly refer to sex and gender?
No, but she emphasized that physical differences do not explain a 'natural inequality'.
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How did de Beauvoir describe writing about women?
'The subject is irritating, especially for women.'
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What is de Beauvoir's magnum opus?
1949 The Second Sex.
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What hint does de Beauvoir give about the gender-sex divide in The Second Sex?
She laments that while half the population are women, discussions of femininity are in decline.
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Why is a rejection of essentialism necessary for de Beauvoir's writings?
Science rejects the existence of an 'essence' that determines femininity.
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How does de Beauvoir describe the essentialism she rejects?
The notion of the 'eternal feminine'.
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How does de Beauvoir examine men being the 'one' in society?
Men do not define themselves primarily as men, as that is unnecessary.
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Where does de Beauvoir hint at the origin of female otherness?
The Bible and Adam's supernumerary bone.
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Who influences de Beauvoir's idea of the other?
Georg Hegel.
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How is de Beauvoir's idea illiberal?
She derides the tendency to 'other' others, noting it as a trait of anti-Semites and racists.
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How does de Beauvoir see the path to eliminating otherness?
By exposing its relativity.
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Why does de Beauvoir find female otherness confounding?
It has persisted despite its relativity, and women are not a minority.
