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Almenn sálfræði > 4.Kafli > Flashcards

4.Kafli Flashcards

1
Q

What two cells does the nervous system consist of?

A

Neurons and glial cells

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2
Q

Sensory neurons:

A

Carry input messages from the senses to the spinal cord and brain

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3
Q

Interneurons:

A

perform associative functions within the nervous system

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4
Q

Motor neurons:

A

Transmit output impulses from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and organs

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5
Q

The peripheral nervous system contains all the neural structures that..?

A

lie outside the brain and spinal cord

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6
Q

What are the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system?

A

The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

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7
Q

What types of neurons does the somatic nervous system consist of?

A

Sensory neurons and motor neurons

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8
Q

What two kinds of cells is the nervous system built up on?

A

Neurons and glial cells

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9
Q

The smooth or involuntary muscles of the heart are controlled by what nervous system?

A

Autonomic

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10
Q

What are the three major types of neurons in the nervous system?

A

Sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons

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11
Q

The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that has an activation or arousal function, is called what?

A

The sympathetic nervous system

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12
Q

The part of the nervous system that contains all the neural structures that lie outside of the brain and the spinal cord, is called what?

A

The peripheral nervous system

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13
Q

The autonomic nervous system is a part of what nervous system?

A

The peripheral nervous system

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14
Q

What are the symptoms of activation of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A
  • Constriction of the bronchi in the lungs
  • Slowing of heart beat
  • Pupil contraction
  • Dilation of blood vessels
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15
Q

The somatic nervous system is a subpart of what nervous system?

A

The peripheral nervous system

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16
Q

What is controlled by the autonomic nervous system?

A

The heart

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17
Q

By working together to obtain an equilibrium, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous system maintain what?

A

Homeostasis

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18
Q

Which symptoms are characteristic of the activating response of the sympathetic nervous system in stressful situations?

A
  • An increase in respiration rate
  • An increase in heart rate
  • Pupil dilation
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19
Q

The brain and spinal cord together form what nervous system?

A

The central nervous system?

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20
Q

Most nerves enter and leave the central nervous system via the..?

A

Spinal cord

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21
Q

What are the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

Slowing down body processes and maintaining a calm state

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22
Q

Gray matter is composed of?

A

Cell bodies

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23
Q

White matter is composed of?

A

Axons

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24
Q

What term is typically used to describe a delicately balanced internal state?

A

Homeostasis

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25
Q

What are the three main parts of a neuron?

A
  • Dendrites
  • Cell body
  • Axon
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26
Q

What describes the spinal cord?

A
  • Sensory nerves enter the back side, whereas motor nerves exit the front side
  • When viewed in cross-section, its central portion resembles a butterfly
  • The central tissue is grey matter, whereas the outside tissue is white matter
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27
Q

What are the symptoms of activation of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A
  • Dilation of blood vessels
  • Slowing of heart beat
  • Constriction of bronchi in the lungs
  • Pupil contraction
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28
Q

What part of the neuron contains the biochemical structures needed to keep the neuron alive, and also carries the genetic information that determines how the cell develops and functions?

A

Cell body

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29
Q

Each neuron has three main parts: a cell body, an axon and multiple..?

A

Dendrites

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30
Q

Which part of the neuron receives chemical messages from the neighbouring neurons?

A

Dendrites

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31
Q

Most nerves enter and leave the central nervous system via the..?

A

Spinal cord

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32
Q

Another term for the cell body of a neuron is..?

A

Soma

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33
Q

The dendrites recieves information from a neighbouring neuron in what form?

A

Chemical form

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34
Q

The axon transmits information from a neighbouring neuron in what form?

A

Electrical form

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35
Q

What are the functions of dendrites, the “antennae” that emerge from the cell body of a neuron?

A

Sending messages to the cell body and collecting messages from neighbouring neurons

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36
Q

The three basic steps of nerve action:

A
  1. an electrical resting potential is maintained through the distribution of positively and negatively charged chemical ions
  2. when stimulated by other neurons, ions flow in and out through the cell membrane, causing depolarisation and a reverse of the electrical charge
  3. a new resting potential is created
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37
Q

What part of the neuron contains the biochemical structures needed to keep the neuron alive, and also carries the genetic information that determines how the cell develops and functions?

A

Cell body

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38
Q

When an action potential is established, the interior of a neuron is____ in relation to the outside of the neuron?

A

+40 mV

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39
Q

Which part of the neuron carries information in an electrical form?

A

Axon

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40
Q

An action potential will be initiated at a uniform and maximum intensity, or it will not be initiated at all. This is referred to as the..?

A

All or nothing law

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41
Q

Resting potential:

A

an electrical resting state is maintained through the distribution of positively and negatively charged chemical ions

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42
Q

Action potential:

A

when stimulated by other neurons, ions flow in and out through the cell membrane, causing depolarisation and a reverse of the electrical charge

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43
Q

New resting potential:

A

electrical resting state is restored

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44
Q

The state in which the interior of a neuron is negatively charged and the exterior is positively charged, with a difference of 70 mV, is called the..?

A

Resting potential

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45
Q

When positively charged sodium ions flood into the axon, attracted by the negative protein ions inside, a state of what is created?

A

Depolarisation

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46
Q

The whitish, fatty insulation layer that covers the axon is called the..?

A

Myelin sheath

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47
Q

The myelin sheath of the axon is interrupted at regular intervals by..?

A

The nodes of Raniver

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48
Q

Which disease is characterised by damage to the myelin sheaths of axons?

A

Multiple sclerosis

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49
Q

The functional benefit of myelin sheaths around axons, interrupted by the nodes of Ranvier, is that it..?

A

increases the speed of action potentials

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50
Q

The synaptic space assists in..?

A

Communication between neurons

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51
Q

Neurotransmitters are stored in..?

A

Synaptic vesicles

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52
Q

The functional benefit of myelin sheaths around axons, interrupted by the nodes of Ranvier, is that is..?

A

Increases the speed of action potentials

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53
Q

The space between the axon terminal and the next neurons is called the..?

A

Synaptic cleft

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54
Q

Messages with a(n)____ activation make it more likely that neighbouring neurons will fire

A

Excitatory

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55
Q

An inhibitory neurotransmitter makes it _____ likely that an action potential will be produced in neighbouring neurons

A

Less

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56
Q

Chambers within the axon terminals where transmitter molecules are stored are called synaptic..?

A

Synaptic vesicles

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57
Q

The large protein molecules embedded in the post-synaptic neuron’s cell membrane are called..?

A

Receptor sites

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58
Q

Once a neurotransmitter molecule binds. to its receptor, it continues to excite or inhibit the neuron until it is deactivated or shut off. In which ways can this deactivation occur?

A

Re-uptake and breakdown of chemical components

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59
Q

Neurotransmitters are stored in..?

A

Synaptic vesicles

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60
Q

What neurotransmitter has an influence on learning, memory, wakefulness and eating?

A

Noradrenaline

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61
Q

The process by which a released neurotransmitter is taken back by the neuron is called..?

A

Re-uptake

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62
Q

Which neurotransmitter is implicated in depression ?

A

Serotonin

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63
Q

The neurotransmitter that is most implicated in Parkinson’s disease is an under-supply of..?

A

Dopamine

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64
Q

The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is involved in what processes?

A

Muscle activity and memory

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65
Q

Black widow spider bite:

A

Overproduction of acetylcholine triggers violent muscle contractions, convulsions, possible death

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66
Q

Alzheimer’s disease:

A

Underproduction of acetylcholine

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67
Q

Botulinum bacteria:

A

Acetylcholine production is blocked resulting in a potentially fatal paralysis of muscles, including respiratory muscles

68
Q

Most neurotransmitters have their excitatory or inhibitory effects only on specific neurons that have receptors for them. Others, called neuromodulators, have..?

A

A more widespread and general influence

69
Q

The neurotransmitter endorphin is an example of all (n) _____ that travels through the brain and inhibits the transmission of pain

A

Neuromodulator

70
Q

A drug that increases the activity of a neurotransmitter is called a(n)?

A

Agonist

71
Q

What is the function of an antagonist?

A

It decreases the action of a neurotransmitter

72
Q

Caffeine is a stimulant drug that does what to the activity of neurons?

A

It increases the activity

73
Q

Alchol has what effects on the body?

A

Antagonist effect because it decreases the activity of glutamate and an agonist effect because it stimulates the activity of GABA

74
Q

Nicotine increases the activity of which neurotransmitters?

A

Acetylcholine and dopamine

75
Q

The neurotransmitter endorphin is an example of..?

A

Neuromodulator that travels through the brain and inhibits the transmission of pain

76
Q

Amphetamine works by increasing the activity of which two neurotransmitters?

A

Norepinephrine and dopamine

77
Q

Difficulties in speech comprehension are a symptom of which disorder?

A

Wernicke’s aphasia

78
Q

What disorder is characterised by difficulties with the production of speech?

A

Broca’s aphasia

79
Q

What other studies have been used to investigate which lesions impair which functions?

A

Animal studies

80
Q

Why might a clinician use an EEG?

A

To explore the possibility of abnormal electrical activity within the brain

81
Q

Which brain imaging technique makes use of the fact that each time an electrical current is created in a group of neurons, a magnetic field is generated?

A

MEG

82
Q

What methods are used to study brain-behaviour relationships?

A

DTI, MEG, EEG, PET, fMRI, MRI

83
Q

The recent brain imaging technique that measures how water molecules diffuse in tissue is called..?

A

DTI

84
Q

What is the disadvantage of PET as a brain imaging technique?

A

Injection of radioactive isotopes

85
Q

The brain imaging method MEG makes use of the fact that each time an electrical current is created in a group of neurons that generate..?

A

A magnetic field

86
Q

Which technique is most useful for investigating how different brain areas are connected to each other via white matter tracts?

A

DTI

87
Q

What are PET scans able to measure?

A
  • Metabolism
  • Brain activity
  • Neurotransmitter activity
  • Blood flow
88
Q

Which technique measures how near-infrared light is reflected by the brain?

A

fNIRS

89
Q

One way to apply brain stimulations is to stimulate a specific region of the brain with a..?

A

Mild electrical current

90
Q

Electrical stimulation for fundamental research (which brain regions have which function) is possible in humans when the participant already has electrodes implanted for other reasons. Most often these are..?

A

Epileptic patients

91
Q

Which technique applies electrical stimulation of a targeted part of the brain via magnetic pulses sent from an electromagnetic coil?

A

TMS

92
Q

Techniques such as fMRI and EEG show us which brain areas are activated during performance. which technique investigates the opposite, by investigating how brain activation influences performance?

A

Brain stimulation

93
Q

The brain has traditionally been viewed as having three major subdivisions. What are they?

A

Forebrain, Midbrain and Hindbrain

94
Q

Which technique applies a low current to the scalp in order to induce electrical stimulation?

A

TES

95
Q

As the spinal cord enters the brain, it enlarges to form the structures that compose the stalklike brain stem. This is the..?

A

Hindbrain

96
Q

Which of the following structures are part of the hindbrain and crucial for life support?

A

Pons and medulla

97
Q

Where is the medulla located?

A

Above the spinal cord in the hindbrain

98
Q

The part of the brain that helps regulate sleep and controls vital function is the..?

A

Pons

99
Q

The cerebellum is part of the?

A

Hindbrain

100
Q

The brain stem spans the hindbrain and the midbrain. The brain stem supports a number of..?

A

Vital physiological functions

101
Q

In addition to muscle movement coordination, the cerebellum also plays a role in which functions?

A

Learning and memory

102
Q

In which functions does the medulla play an important role?

A

Respiration and heart rate

103
Q

The pons is a brain structure that lies just above the medulla. The word ‘pons’ means ‘bridge’ in Latin. Why does this term make sense?

A

The pons relays sensory information between the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum

104
Q

Traditionally, the lowest and most primitive level of the brain is called the..?

A

Hindbrain

105
Q

Without reticular stimulation of higher brain areas, sensory messages do not register in awareness, even though the nerve impulses may reach the appropriate higher areas of the brain. This demonstrates why the reticular formation plays a central role in..?

A

Consciousness

106
Q

The descending function of the reticular formation blocks some sensory inputs while admitting others. This explains how the reticular formation is important for which higher order function?

A

Selective attention

107
Q

Which important brain structure is fully formed at birth, plays an important role in vital bodily functions and is the first structure above the spinal cord?

A

Medulla

108
Q

The cerebrum comprises the cerebral cortex, and is subdivided into two larger parts: the left and the right side of the brain. The latter are referred to as the two..?

A

Hemispheres

109
Q

The visual, auditory and bodily senses all have major relay stations in the..?

A

Thalamus

110
Q

The major structure of the forebrain is the..?

Consisting of two large hemispheres: the left and the right side of the brain

A

Cerebrum

111
Q

Andreason (1997) studied men diagnosed with schizophrenia that showed MRI images of disrupted thalamus functioning. What does this suggest?

A

Disrupted functioning of the thalamus caused sensory confusion. The thalamus was sending garbled messages to the brain.

112
Q

Which brain structure plays a major role in many aspects of motivation and emotion, including sexual behaviour, temperature regulation, sleeping, eating, drinking and aggression?

A

Hypothalamus

113
Q

Why is the thalamus sometimes compared to relay station or a switchboard?

A

It organises sensory inputs and routes them to the appropriate areas of the brain

114
Q

Olds and Milner’s (1954) experiment with rats shows us that the _____ has a reward and punishment centre

A

Hypothalamus

115
Q

Which are the two key structures in the limbic system?

A

Hippocampus and amygdala

116
Q

Damage to the hippocampus makes it difficult to..?

A

Form new memories

117
Q

Lesions in part of the hypothalamus does what to the sex drive?

A

It decreases it

118
Q

Amygdala stimulation is very important for the _____ to form emotional memories.

A

Hippocampus

119
Q

Which neurochemical was identified as producing ‘rewarding’ behaviours in the rats in Olds and Milner’s (1954) study?

A

Dopamine

120
Q

The limbic system:

A
  • It is involved in memory
  • It helps co-ordinate motivational and emotional urges
  • Two key structures are the hippocampus and the amygdala
121
Q

Electrical stimulation of which brain area may cause animals to snarl and assume aggressive postures?

A

Amygdala

122
Q

The portion of the brain that is part of the limbic system and is associated with forming and retrieving memories. Damage there can result in memory impairment for recent events. This is..?

A

The hippocampus

123
Q

The cerebral cortex forms what layer of the human brain?

A

The outermost layer

124
Q

Because the cortex is wrinkled and convoluted, a great amount of the cortex lies within its inward folds that are not visible on the surface. These are called?

A

Fissures

125
Q

If you are feeling angry or fearful, which part of the brain is most likely involved?

A

Amygdala

126
Q

Which three fissures form the landmarks for dividing the cortex into two hemispheres each containing four lobes?

A
  • Sylvian fissure
  • Medial longitudinal fissure
  • Central fissure
127
Q

The cerebral cortex primarily consists of..?

A

Grey matter

128
Q

The amount of somatosensory cortex devoted to each body part is directly proportional to that region’s sensory..?

A

Sensitivity

129
Q

The primary auditory cortex lies in the..?

A

Temporal lobe

130
Q

The primary visual cortex lies in the..?

A

Occipital lobe

131
Q

If certain cells in the visual cortex fire only when we look at a particular kind of stimulus, such as a vertical line or a corner (Hubel and Wiesel, 1979), we can conclude that..?

A

Within each sensory area, neurons respond to particular aspects of the sensory stimulus

132
Q

In the motor cortex, the amount of cortex devoted to each body part is proportional to the..?

A

Complexity of that area’s motor function

133
Q

For what type of functions is the associated cortex important?

A

Perception, Language and Thoughts

134
Q

The inability to recognise familiar objects is called visual..?

A

Agnosia

135
Q

What type of sensory input does the somatosensory cortex receive?

A

Information about heat, touch, cold, balance and movement

136
Q

Much of what we know about the function of the frontal lobes comes from patient studies. Patients who suffered from frontal lobe damage show..?

A

Difficulties in planning and carrying out a sequence of actions

137
Q

Brenda is setting her goals for the upcoming month. She is using what cortex?

A

Prefrontal cortex

138
Q

What is an example of an executive function carried out by the prefrontal cortex?

A

Initiative

139
Q

Which part of the cortex is involved in many important mental functions such as perception, language and thought?

A

Association cortex

140
Q

Compared to non-violent people, violent people have a ____ volume of prefrontal cortex.

A

Smaller

141
Q

Agnosia - The inability to recognise familiar objects - is related to a dysfunction of what cortex?

A

Association

142
Q

What is the main function of the corpus callosum?

A

Connect the left and right hemispheres of the brain

143
Q

Qualities like self-awareness and planning are associated with what lobes?

A

Frontal lobe

144
Q

The relatively greater localisation of a function in one hemisphere is called..?

A

Lateralization

145
Q

What is the name of the tissue that passes information between the two cerebral hemispheres ?

A

Corpus callosum

146
Q

Reading is associated with the left side of the brain. This is the example of..?

A

Lateralisation

147
Q

Patient studies on brain damage to either the left of right hemisphere suggested that, for most people, verbal abilities and speech are localized in what hemisphere?

A

Left hemisphere

148
Q

Some people have had such severe epilepsy that their corpus callosum has been cut, reducing the spread of electrical activity from..?

A

One hemisphere to the other

149
Q

How does experience influence brain development?

A

MRI research has shown that musicians somatosensory area was well-developed and premature infants that were massaged showed faster neurological development

150
Q

Although the two cerebral hemispheres work in co-ordination, they appear to have different functions and abilities. The left hemisphere commands..?

A

Language and mathematical abilities

151
Q

Which job can bring about significant plasticity to the hippocampus?

A

London taxi driver

152
Q

By cutting the nerve fibres of the corpus callosum, _____ can be prevented from moving from one hemisphere to another.

A

Seizures

153
Q

Visual information from the left versus the right visual field ‘cross over’ in the brain at the level of the..?

A

Optic chiasm

154
Q

In which of the following ways can neural functioning be restored following damage?

A

Neurogenesis and the use of neural stem cells

155
Q

A researcher searches for neuropsychological or biological markers for ADHD. She is most likely working in the field of..?

A

Cognitive neurogenomics

156
Q

Just as neurons have receptors for certain neurotransmitters, cells in the body have receptor molecules that respond to specific..?

A

Hormones

157
Q

In the adult brain, the birth of new cells has been established only in the..? but it may occur in other brain areas as well

A

Hippocampus

158
Q

What is studied in the field of cognitive neurogenomics?

A

How genomes influence the development of cognitive functions

159
Q

Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted from endocrine glands into the..?

A

Bloodstream

160
Q

Microscopic ‘soldiers’ are programmed with the innate ability to recognize which substance belong the body and which are foreign and therefore must be destroyed. This is a description of what system?

A

The immune system

161
Q

Foreign substances known as ____ trigger a biochemical response from the immune system

A

Antigens

162
Q

As a behaving entity, just like the nervous system, the immune system has the capacity to ___ specific forms of stimulation

A

Sense, interpret and respond to

163
Q

Stress management skills, an optimistic outlook, a sense of humour and social support can ____ immunity.

A

Preserve

164
Q

If the immune system encounters a particular antigen, _____ are produced to destroy it

A

Antibodies

165
Q

In the sense that it has the capacity to sense, interpret and respond to specific forms of stimulation, the immune system is comparable to the..?

A

Nervous system

166
Q

Chronic stress, depression and pessimistic thinking can_____ immune functioning.

A

Decrease

Almenn sálfræði (13 decks)

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