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Almenn sálfræði > 9. Kafli > Flashcards

9. Kafli Flashcards

1
Q

When cognitive psychologists are talking about language and thinking, what term do they use to describe the human ability to create images, ideas, concepts and principles of the world?

A

Mental representations

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2
Q

Language refers to a system of symbol and rules for combining these symbols in ways that can generate..?

A

An infinite number of possible messages and meanings

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3
Q

The scientific study of the psychological aspects of language is..?

A

Psycholinguistics

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4
Q

According to evolutionists, the creation of divisions of labour and co-operative social systems may have been due to the creation of..?

A

Language

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5
Q

Humans have a remarkable ability to create mental representations of the world. Having mental representations refers to which kind of abilities?

A
  • Images
  • Principles
  • Concepts
  • Ideas
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6
Q

Which of the following are examples of adaptive functions of language?

A
  • Conscious thinking
  • Learning
  • Communication
  • Social interaction
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7
Q

Langage uses sounds, characters, or some other system of symbols to represent objects, events, feelings, ideas and actions. These words do not directly correspond to the concept the describe. In this sense symbols are..?

A

Arbitrary

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8
Q

As the social environment became more complex, the development of language made it easier for humans to..?

A

Adapt to these environmental demands

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9
Q

Evolutionary theorists believe that language evolved as humans adopted more..?

A

Social lifestyle

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10
Q

The fact that languages have grammar and syntax rules demonstrate that languages..?

A

Are structured

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11
Q

What four properties are essential to any language?

A
  • Meaning
  • Generativity
  • Symbols
  • Structure
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12
Q

The grammatical rules of all languages..?

A

Share common functions

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13
Q

The word ‘bunny’ does not look like a real bunny, nor does the spoken word sound like it. Instead the word. is arbitrary. This demonstrates that language is..?

A

Symbolic

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14
Q

Language allows you to talk to a friend about your hobbies and feelings. Based on the words you use, and how they are organized, your friend will hopefully understand what you mean. This demonstrates that language..?

A

Conveys meaning

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15
Q

The fact that language is structured is demonstrated by the fact that languages have what rules?

A

Grammar and syntax

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16
Q

‘I nailed it’. The fact that we do not take this saying literally, demonstrates that we understand the..?

A

Semantics

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17
Q

The grammatical rules of all languages..?

A

Share common functions

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18
Q

In the English language we create nonsensical sentences such as, ‘How does the crab sit under my wheel?’ This strange sentence combination and our ability to understand it is due to?

A

Generativity

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19
Q

The fact that language allows us to communicate about events and objects that are not physically present, demonstrates that language..?

A

Permits displacement

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20
Q

In using language people are able to form and then transfer..?

A

Mental representations to the mind of another person

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21
Q

Which research topics do psycholinguists, who study the structure of language, focus on?

A
  • Hierarchical structure
  • Surface structure
  • Deep structure
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22
Q

The meaning of words and sentences is called?

A

Semantics

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23
Q

The symbols of language can be combined into an infinite number of possibilities. This property is called..?

A

Generativity

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24
Q

The smallest unit of meaning in a language is..?

A

A morpheme

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25
Q

Name a few morphemes:

A
  • Plural s
  • Dog
  • Pre-
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26
Q

The hierarchical structure of language begins with phonemes and the next level is..?

A

Morphemes

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27
Q

What are types of discourse, the highest level of the hierarchical structure of language?

A
  • Conversations
  • Books
  • Paragraphs
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28
Q

Hierarchical structure:

A
  1. Phonems
  2. Morphems
  3. Words
  4. Phrases
  5. Sentence
  6. Discourse
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29
Q

When sensory information is interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas and expectation, this is called..?

A

Top-down processing

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30
Q

What term refers to sentences being combined into paragraphs, books, articles, conversations, etc.?

A

Discourse

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31
Q

Word recognition is a topic of interest in which research field?

A

Psycholinguistics

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32
Q

The task whereby participants must name the colour of the ink a word is printed in, and where the word can name a different colour to the ink, is known as the..?

A

Stroop task

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33
Q

What are typical dependent measures in a word recognition task?

A

Reaction times and error ratings

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34
Q

Analysing the basic element of the visual parts of a sentence and then feeding this information into other cell groups that lead you to perceive these patterns as letters is an example of..?

A

Bottom-up processing

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35
Q

Which pattern of result is typical for the word frequency effect?

A

High frequency words are recognised faster that lower frequency words

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36
Q

Psycholinguistics are interested in how words are recognised in both..?

A

Spoken form and written form

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37
Q

Which normative measure indicates how often a word occurs in any given written or spoken language?

A

Word frequency

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38
Q

The fact that beginning readers ____ show a stroop effect corroborates the hypothesis that the effect reflects automatic processing.

A

Do not

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39
Q

Lexical decision:

A

Participants decide whether a letter string is an actual word or a non-word

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40
Q

Naming task:

A

Participants have to say aloud a word with which they have been presented

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41
Q

Categorisation task:

A

Participants determine whether a word is a ‘living thing’ or not

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42
Q

An age-of-acqusition (AoA) effect on word recognition is characterised by faster response times for..?

A

Early acquired that for later acquired

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43
Q

Who developed one of the earliest models of word recognition?

A

Forster (1976)

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44
Q

The serial search model of word recognition proposed that words in the access files are stored together on the basis of information about them, such as which are the first few letters in a word. This means for example that the words ‘cake’, ‘can’, ‘cab’ and ‘car’ are stored in the same..?

A

Bin

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45
Q

In lexical decision tasks, priming effects typically lead to ____ response time for word naming when the word was preceded by a semantically related word than an unrelated word.

A

Faster

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46
Q

The Stroop paradigm demonstrates than..?

A

Word recognition is automatic and involuntary

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47
Q

The age at which a word is learned is known as the..?

A

Age of acquisition

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48
Q

In contrast to serial models on word recognition, the interactive activation and competition model proposes that word recognition is a..?

A

Parallel or connectionist process

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49
Q

Most cognitive models of word recognition are based on the concept of..?

A

A mental lexicon

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50
Q

In lexical decision task, participants are faster in naming a word when it has been preceded by a semantically related word than an unrelated word. This is a..?

A

Priming effect

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51
Q

In Rumelhart and McClelland interactive activation and competition model, there are inhibitory and excitatory links between which levels of word recognition?

A
  • Word level
  • Letter level
  • Feature level
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52
Q

The interactive activation and competition model is an example of a _____ view on word recognition.

A

Connectionist

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53
Q

In more recent version of the interactive activation and competition model of word recognition, frequency effects on naming latencies are accounted for by_____?

A

Varying connection strengths

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54
Q

Colin changes the way in which he speaks when he is teaching his third grade students. Colin knows his vocabulary may be too difficult for them to understand. He modifies his language so that his students can understand him. This is an example of..?

A

Pragmatics

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55
Q

In the interactive activation and competition (IAC) model of word recognition, connections are described as being..?

A

Excitatory and Inhibitory

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56
Q

Top-down knowledge of the practical aspects of using language is called?

A

Pragmatics

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57
Q

Which area of the brain is related to word production?

A

Broca’s area

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58
Q

Gender studies using functional MRI have shown that in a language task women have..?

A

Activation in both the left and right hemispheres

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59
Q

Broca’s area is located in..?

A

The frontal lobe

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60
Q

Wernicke’s area is located in..?

A

The temporal lobe

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61
Q

What is the importance of language development between 6 and 12 months of age?

A

Babies discriminate sounds specific to their native tounge

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62
Q

Gender studies have shown that men have greater..?

A

Left-hemisphere activation during a language task than women

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63
Q

The fact that children learn to master language early in life without formal instruction indicates a..?

A

Biological basis for language development

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64
Q

What facts suggest a biological basis for language acquisition?

A
  • Children, despite their limited thinking skills, begin to master language early in life without formal instruction
  • Despite their differences, all adult languages throughout the world have common underlying structural characteristics
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65
Q

Noam Chomsky’s theory maintains that humans are genetically pre-wired for language at..?

A

Birth

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66
Q

Which of the following are accepted as reasonable explanations for language acquisition?

A

Chominsky’s LAD theory

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67
Q

A mother talking to her child in a high-pitched intonation is demonstrating..?

A

Child-directed speech

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68
Q

The linguist Chomsky proposes an innate biological mechanism that contains the general grammatical rules common to all languages. This is called the..?

A

Language acquisition device

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69
Q

Skinner developed a theory of language acquisition that involved..?

A

Positive reinforcement by adults

70
Q

Caregivers teaching their children words by pointing out objects and naming them, is an example of..?

A

Child-directed speech

71
Q

Observational studies show that parents primarily focus on the_____ of what children communicate.

A

Deep structure

72
Q

The language acquisition support system contains factors in ______ that facilitate the learning of language.

A

The social environment

73
Q

The ‘sensitive period’ hypothesis maintains that children who have been delayed in learning language..?

A

Can catch up but language will be harder to learn

74
Q

Dana communicates to her mother her desire for milk by saying ‘want milk’ dana’s sentence is an example of..?

A

Telegraphic speech

75
Q

Language acquisition proceeds according to a developmental timetable that..?

A

Is common to all cultures

76
Q

What were the criticisms of Skinner’s operant conditioning theory of language acquisition?

A
  • Children learn so fast that it is unlikely that operant learning is involved
  • Children’s language is different from their parents so it can be thought of as imitative
77
Q

Factors in the social environment that facilitate the learning of a language are collectively called..?

A

The language acquisition support system

78
Q

According to the ‘sensitive period’ hypothesis, children learn language best between..?

A

Infancy and puberty

79
Q

When young children utter two word sentences with only a noun and a verb, they are using..?

A

Telegraphic speech

80
Q

Current understanding of whether or not apes can learn language:

A
  • There is limited and controversial evidence for the fact that animals use generatively and displacement in language
  • Apes are capable of learning, combining and communicating with symbols
81
Q

At which age have children typically learned the basic grammar rules for combining nouns, adjectives, articles, etc into meaningful sentences?

A

4-5 years

82
Q

Bilingualism is the use of two languages..?

A

In daily life

83
Q

Evidently, researchers who investigate the effects of bilingualism on cognitive abilities do not get to randomly assign children to bilingual or monolingual classrooms. As a consequence, ______ is difficult to establish.

A

Causation

84
Q

When do children approximately speak their first recognisable words?

A

12 months

85
Q

Research on bilingual children shows that bilingualism..?

A
  • Is correlated with higher performance on non-verbal intelligence tests
  • Is correlated with greater thinking flexibility
86
Q

In order to investigate whether a second language is represented in the same parts of the brain as the native language, several research studied bilinguals who suffered from aphasia as a result of brain damage. What did they find, suggesting that in some cases both languages are at least partly represented in different networks?

A

There is variability of the degree of impairment in each language

87
Q

Several researchers investigated how a second language is represented in the brain by using brain imaging studies. Perani and colleagues, for example found that people who learned a second language before the age of ten showed a representation of the two languages..?

A

In the same corital areas

88
Q

The linguistic relativity hypothesis theory contends that language______ what we are thinking.

A

Does not only influence but also determines

89
Q

Research on how the Munduruku children process geometric shapes or spatial concepts indicates that cultures with limited names for geometric shapes and spatial tasks..?

A

Can perform as well on geometric and spatial tasks as American children

90
Q

The theory that contends that language not only influences but also determines what we are thinking is called the..?

A

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

91
Q

Roach’s research on how the Dani og New Guinea process colours suggest that cultures with limited names for colour can identify..?

A

A wide assortment of colours

92
Q

The use of gender terms such as ‘he’ or ‘she’ in language may contribute to..?

A

Stereotyping

93
Q

Asian languages make it much easier to learn number system. regardless of their counting abilities. Chinese children grasp the 10-base system at a younger age than english children. This demonstrates that language..?

A

Influences ‘how well’ we think

94
Q

A direct way of communicating between a brain and an external device is called..?

A

A brain-computer interface

95
Q

The statement ‘i am thirsty’ is an example of?

A

Propositional thought

96
Q

The mode of thought that takes the form of verbal sentences that we say or hear in our minds is called?

A

Propositional thought

97
Q

The type of thought that consists of mental representations of motor movements is called?

A

Motoric thought

98
Q

The statement ‘mothers are caring people’ is an example of?

A

A proposition

99
Q

The basic units of semantic memory, and events that have essential features in common, are called?

A

Concepts

100
Q

In contrast to propositional thought, images that we can see, hear or feel in our mind are called?

A

Imaginal thought

101
Q

What are prototypes?

A

The most typical and familiar members of a category

102
Q

Sarah can imagine herself throwing a curve ball at her next practice. Sarah’s thought is an example of?

A

Motoric thought

103
Q

The technique that measures the activity of large groups of neurons through a series of large electrodes placed on the scalp, is called?

A

EEG

104
Q

Statements that express ideas called..?

A

Propositions

105
Q

Abstract words like ‘liberal’ and ‘conservative’ are examples of..?

A

Concepts

106
Q

In line with the prototype view, participants are ____ to answer the question ‘is an eagle a bird?’ than ‘is a penguin a bird?’

A

Faster

107
Q

EEG measure the activity of _____ through a series of large electrodes placed on the scalp.

A

Group of neurons

108
Q

Tom can hear music in his mind. This is an example of..?

A

Imaginal thought

109
Q

Participants are faster to respond ‘yes’ to the question ‘is robin a bird?’ than ‘‘is a penguin a bird?’. This is in line with the idea that concepts are formed on the basis of..?

A

Prototypes

110
Q

What do logicians call the propositions that are assumed to be true when solving a problem logically?

A

Premises

111
Q

Reasoning:

A
  • It helps avoid time-consuming trial and error
  • It allows people to solve problems by developing solutions in their minds, then applying them
  • It helps us to acquire knowledge
112
Q

If all humans are mortal, and
If Socrates is human
Then Socrates must be mortal
This is an example of..?

A
  • Logic
  • Syllogism
  • Deductive reasoning
113
Q

When participants are asked to reason about actions rather than matters of facts, this is called..?

A

Deontic reasoning

114
Q

The only way to respond correctly on the Wason four-card selection task is to try to..?

A

Falsify the to-be-assessed rule

115
Q

When scientists conduct experiments to formally test their hypothesis, they move from a general explanatory principle to a specific observation. This is..?

A

Deductive reasoning

116
Q

Belief bias is the tendency to abandon ____ in favour of our own personal beliefs.

A

Logical rules

117
Q

The tendency to abandon logical rules in favour of one’s own personal belief is called..?

A

Belief bias

118
Q

Saying that your glass is half full versus half empty is an example of..?

A

Framing

119
Q

Four stages of problem solving from the initial to the final step:

A
  1. Interpret (frame) and understand the problem
  2. Generate hypotheses or possible solutions
  3. Test the solutions or hypotheses
  4. Evaluate results
120
Q

Framing a problem in an effective way, that differs from conventional expectations, is referred to as thinking..?

A

Outside the box

121
Q

In problem-solving, once we have interpreted the problem, we can begin to formulate possible solutions. Which of the following are part of this stage?

A
  • Determine what procedures are consistent with the evidence so far
  • Determine what procedures do not fit with the evidence so far
  • Determine what procedures will be considered
122
Q

The tendency to stick to solutions that have worked in the past is called..?

A

Mental set

123
Q

The mental blueprints or step-by-step scripts for selecting information and solving specialized classes of problems are called..?

A

Problem solving schemas

124
Q

Formulas or procedures that automatically generate correct solutions to problems are called..?

A

Algorithms

125
Q

General problem-solving strategies that we apply to certain classes of situations are called..?

A

Heuristics

126
Q

In the context of a problem-solving process, the final step is evaluating results. An important final question to ask is:

A

Would there have been an easier or more effective way to accomplish the same objective?

127
Q

The advantage of having schemas for certain types of ‘problems’, such as cooking or studying, is that once we master them, we know what to do _____ step-by-step formal problem-solving procedures.

A

Without

128
Q

Formuals or precise sequences of procedures that automatically generate solutions are called..?

A

Algorithms

129
Q

An algorithm is somewhat like a..?

A

Formula

130
Q

A heuristic is somewhat like a..?

A

Rule-of-thumb

131
Q

A common heuristic where the person identifies differences between the present situations and a desired goal, and then makes changes to reach the goal is called..?

A

Means-ends analysis

132
Q

The ability to break down a goal into specific steps designed to reach the goal is called?

A

Subgoal analysis

133
Q

Mathematics is an example of an?

A

Algorithm

134
Q

Research results have indicated that certain heuristics underlie much of our inductive decision making..?

A

And that misusing these heuristics contributes to many of our thinking errors

135
Q

If we meet someone at a party and find out they are an accountant, our _____ heuristic might also conclude that they are frugal, obsessive and organized.

A

Representativeness

136
Q

You are overweight. You would like to lose twenty pounds. You decide to start an exercise program. This situation is an example of..?

A

Means-ends analysis

137
Q

Which heuristic allows us to infer how closely something or someone fits our prototype for a particular concept, or class, and therefore how likely it is to be a member of that class?

A

Representiveness

138
Q

The actual frequency at which something occurs is called the?

A

Base rate

139
Q

The only way in which certainty about a given hypothesis can be obtained, is by finding evidence that______ it. This way we conclude that our theory_____ true.

A

Disconfirms, Cannot be

140
Q

An aide to a politician is polling constituents on whether or not they support a project in their district, so he asks them, ‘are you in favour of better education for children’? Most of the constituents answer affirmatively so the aide presents this information to his boss. This is an example of?

A

The confirmation bias

141
Q

The best way to test a hypothesis is to seek evidence that will..?

A

Disconfirm it

142
Q

In what ways do people shelter themselves from disconfirming evidence?

A
  • They recall confirming feedback
  • They find compatible media sites
  • They seek out like-minded people
143
Q

Which bias involves the tendency to look for evidence that will align with what we currently believe rather than looking for contrary evidence?

A

Confirmation bias

144
Q

The process of generating novel ideas that depart from the norm is called..?

A

Divergent thinking

145
Q

People who seek out others who think like them and only watch, listen or read mass-media that supports their views most likely have fallen into the trap of..?

A

Confirmation bias

146
Q

The main purpose of metacomprehension when studying for an exam is?

A
  • To know what you do not know yet

- To know which parts need re-studying

147
Q

How would you advise students to improve metacomprehension when studying for an exam?

A
  • Articulate the main concepts of a chapter
  • Test your knowledge with practice tests
  • Write summaries of the material after a delay
148
Q

Kosslyn and colleagues propose that mental images, while not literally pictures in the mind, function in ways analogous to actual visual images and are represented in the brain as a type of..?

A

Perceptual code

149
Q

A students knowledge of their ability to recall a list of definitions is an example of..?

A

Metamemory

150
Q

Ganis and colleagues used brain-imaging and showed that many brain regions that become active when people perceive actual objects also become active when people..?

A

Form mental images of those objects

151
Q

Donald thinks he understands concepts that he really doesn’t understand. At other times, there are concepts that Donald doesn’t realize he understands. Donald might have poor..?

A

Metacomprehension

152
Q

Neurons that fire in response to a particular stimulus regardless of whether it is visual or imagined are referred to as..?

A

Imagery neurons

153
Q

According to many researchers, such as Kosslyn, what is the neural basis of mental images?

A

The same brain areas that are active when the stimulus is actually present

154
Q

The process of generating novel ideas that depart from the norm is called?

A

Divergent thinking

155
Q

Sometimes creative solutions to problems seemingly appear out of the blue, suddenly popping into our mind. This is called____?

A

Incubation, which occurs when a problem was being worked on at a subconscious level

156
Q

Knowledge forms a foundation for expertise and wisdom

A

When each culture passes down knowledge form one generation to the next

157
Q

Concepts, categories, algorithms and heuristics are all examples of so-called..?

A

Schemas

158
Q

A mental framework involving a sequence of events that usually unfolds in a standardized order is called a..?

A

Script

159
Q

What is the relationship between schemas, scripts and cognitive reasoning?

A

Acquiring new scripts or concepts increases your knowledge, thus increasing cognitive reasoning

160
Q

A script is a mental framework concerning a _____ that usually unfolds in a regular, standardized order.

A

Sequence of events

161
Q

An examination of cross-cultural views suggests that the major components used to define wisdom

A

Are the same throughout the world

162
Q

The difference in the use of memory usage between experts and novice is that experts rely on _____ and novices rely on _____ memory.

A

Long term, working

163
Q

What are the five major components of wisdom according to Baltes and Staudinger?

A
  • An understanding of lifespan contexts
  • Rich procedural knowledge about life
  • An awareness of the relativism of values and priorities
  • Rich factual knowledge about life
  • The ability to recognise and manage uncertainty
164
Q

A representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain, rather than from external sensory input, is called a?

A

Mental image

165
Q

Young and old Inuit alike regard wisdom as a key component of ageing successfully. This perspective of wisdom is..?

A

Cultural

166
Q

A mental image is a representation of a stimulus that originates ____ rather than from external sensory input.

A

In the brain

167
Q

What did Shepard and Metzler find in their study on mental rotation, in which they asked participants to judge whether two rotated objects were the same or not?

A
  • The more an object was rotated, the longer it took participants to judge whether it was similar to the target object or not
  • The relationship between the angle of rotation and response time was linear
168
Q

According to studies on healthy and impaired brain functioning, which of the following statements is true?

A

Visual mental imagery and visual perception overlap

169
Q

Some patients who have damage on one side of the brain, usually the right hemisphere, fail to perceive objects on the other side of the visual field despite normal vision. This condition is called?

A

Visual neglect

170
Q

Metacognition consists of which components?

A
  • Metacomprehension

- Metamemory

Almenn sálfræði (13 decks)

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