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PSYCH 105 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Rationalism

A

the idea that knowledge can be
obtained through reasoning, simply thinking about the topic

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2
Q

Change blindness

A

A stimulus undergoes a change without begin notice by its observer, proves that reasoning alone cannot be the only way we obtain knowlage

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3
Q

Empiricism

A

the idea that knowledge can be obtained through observation and experience

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4
Q

Goal of scientific enterprise

A
  1. Measurement and description
  2. Understanding and prediction
  3. Application and control
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5
Q

The Scientific Method

A
  1. IDENTIFY Question of Interest
  2. GATHER Information and FORM Hypothesis
  3. TEST Hypothesis by Conducting Research
  4. ANALYZE Data, Draw Tentative Conclusions, and REPORT Findings
  5. BUILD a Body of Knowledge; Ask Further Questions; Conduct More Research; Develop and Test Theories
  6. Restart the process
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6
Q

Variable

A

Any characteristic that can vary

Operational Definition: Defines a variable in terms of specific procedures used to produce or measure it
• A description in concrete, measurable terms

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7
Q

Participants/Subjects

A

the organisms whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study

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8
Q

Statistics

A

used to analyze data and decide
whether hypotheses were supported or not
• Findings are shared through reports at scientific meetings and in scientific journals

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9
Q

Direct observation

A

watch and record behaviour
as objectively and precisely as possible

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10
Q

Questionnaire

A

a series of written questions designed to obtain information about attitudes, opinions, and specific aspects of behaviour

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11
Q

Interview

A

face-to-face dialogue

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12
Q

Psychological test

A

a standardized measure to
obtain a sample of subjects’ behaviour

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13
Q

Physiological/neural recording

A

an instrument monitors and records specific physiological processes in a subject

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14
Q

Examination of archival records

A

analyze existing institutional records

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15
Q

Data Collection Techniques

A

Psychological test
Physiological/neural recording
Examination of archival records

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16
Q

Types of Research Studies

A

Descriptive Methods: any means to capture, report, record, or otherwise describe a group
• Naturalistic observation
• Participant observation
• Case studies
• Surveys

Sometimes called Correlational Research

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17
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

• Observe behavior without manipulation
• Most likely representative of real world behavior

Cons:
• No control over behavior
• Difficult to determine exact cause of behavior

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18
Q

Participant Observation

A

• Researcher interacts with population of interest
• Allows for research insights from participants’ perspective

Cons:
• May be subject to biases or interpretation • Observations may not be repeatable

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19
Q

Case Study

A

• A report of a single person, group, or situation
• Collect a lot of detail

Cons:
• Not an experiment
• Can be difficult to draw causal relationships

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20
Q

Survey

A

• Questions to extract specific information from a group of people
• Relatively easy to administer
• An effective approach to gather lots of information

Cons:
• Susceptible to biases from both researchers and participants

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21
Q

Experimental Research

A

Experiment: manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed
• Detection of cause-and-effect relationships
• Testing theories through controlled experiments
• Hypothesis driven

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22
Q

Hypothesis

A

a tentative explanation or
prediction about some phenomenon that often takes the form of an “If-Then” statement

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23
Q

Theory

A

a set of formal statements that explain how and why certain events or phenomena are related to one another

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24
Q

What makes a good theory?

A

• Consistent with prior observation (i.e., predictions are supported by research)
• Conforms to law of parsimony (i.e., is as simple as possible); aka Occam’s Razor
• Specific
• Measurable
• Establish causality*
• Falsifiable – something that we can actually test

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25
Q

Independent variable

A

variable manipulated

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26
Q

Dependent variable

A

variable affected by manipulation

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27
Q

How does X affect Y?

A

X = independent variable, Y = dependent variable

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28
Q

Extraneous Variables

A

uncontrolled events that can affect our dependent variable
• Aka confounding variables

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29
Q

Population

A

the entire set of individuals about
whom we wish to draw a conclusion

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30
Q

Sample

A

a subset of individuals drawn from a population

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31
Q
  1. Simple random sample
A

• Everyone has an equal chance

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32
Q
  1. Stratified random sample
A

• Divide into subgroups and take representative samples

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33
Q
  1. Non-random sample
A

• Due to study constraints, not equal chances

• Not always possible to randomly sample
• Sometimes, you have to design your research with the idea that we can’t randomly sample in mind

• That can be okay if:
1. Similarity of a sample and a population doesn’t matter
2. Multiple experiments conducted on different samples have similar results
3. Similarity of sample and population is sometimes reasonable

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34
Q
  1. Convenience sample
A

• Work with what you’ve got (e.g., subject pool)

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35
Q

representative sample

A

A sample that reflects the important characteristics of the population

  • it is better to have a smaller repre- sentative sample than a larger, unrepresentative one
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36
Q

Random sampling

A

Method of sampling in which every member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen to participate

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37
Q

Experimental group

A

subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable

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38
Q

Control group

A

similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment

39
Q

Logic of Experimental and Control Groups

A

• Two groups alike in all respects (random assignment)
• Manipulate independent variable for one group only
• Resulting differences in the two groups must be due to the independent variable

40
Q

Placebo

A

The placebo is the effect of a treatment that arises from a patient’s expectations but not the independent variable

41
Q

Variations in Experimental Design

A

• Expose a single group to two different conditions
• Reduces extraneous variables

• Manipulate more than one independent variable
• Allows for study of interactions between variables

• Use more than one dependent variable
• Obtains a more complete picture of effect of the independent variable

42
Q

Types of Research: Experiments

A
  1. Between groups (or between subjects)
    design
    • Each group in the experiment is composed of a different set of participants
  2. Repeated measures (or within subjects) design
    • Each participant is exposed to all the conditions of an independent variable
43
Q

Advantages and Disadvantages of Scientific Research Method

A

• Advantages:
• Conclusions about cause-and-effect can be drawn

• Disadvantages:
• Artificial nature of experiments • Ethical and practical issues

44
Q

Internal Validity

A

degree to which results can be attributed to the independent variable and not other explanations (e.g., confounds)

45
Q

External Validity

A

The degree to which results can be generalized to other people, across settings, and across time

46
Q

Statistics

A

using mathematics to organize,
summarize, and interpret numerical data

47
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

organizing and summarizing data in a useful way

48
Q

Inferential statistics

A

interpreting data and drawing conclusions

49
Q

Mode

A

most frequent value

50
Q

Median

A

look at total number of values, divide in half, record value given for middle data point

51
Q

Mean

A

average; center of dataset, skewed by outliers

52
Q

Variability

A

How spread out is the data? What is the shape of the data?

53
Q

Range

A

subtract lowest from highest data value

54
Q

Standard deviation

A

spread of data around mean;
√𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

55
Q

Variance

A

average of squared deviation scores; (standard deviation)2

56
Q

Statistics and the 5% rule

A

If the probability of an event is less than 5%, we call that a “rare” event

57
Q

Correlational research:

A

Looking for an association between two (or more)
measured variables
• Researchers care about relationships between variables

• Keep in mind:
• Correlation does not equal causation!

58
Q

Correlation

A

Correlation is the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables

59
Q

Correlation coefficient (r)

A

describes the relationship between two variables

• Ranges from -1.0 to +1.0
• Sign indicates direction
• Absolute value indicates strength

60
Q

Positive Correlations

A

An increase in one variable relates to an increase in the other

• The more birds I have, the happier I feel
• 0 < r ≤ +1.0

61
Q

Negative Correlations

A

An increase in one variable relates to a decrease in the other
• The more work I have, the less happy I am
• -1.0 ≤ r < 0

62
Q

Zero Correlations

A

There is no relationship
•The two variables are not correlated with one another
•r = 0

63
Q

Advantages of Correlational Research:

A

• Show the strength of present relationships
• Can be used to make predictions about variables
• Identifies ‘real-world’ associations
• Is X related to Y?

64
Q

Disadvantages of Correlational Research

A

• Can’t assume cause-effect relationship exists
• Relationships may be due to a third unmeasured variable
• Shows an association NOT a cause

65
Q

Evaluating Research

A

• Sampling bias
• Placebo effects
• Distortions in self-reported data:
• Social desirability bias
• Response set
• Halo effect
• Experimenter bias
• The double-blind solution

66
Q

Ethics in Psychology Research

A

Ethics is a set of general principles of how people should be educated, treated, and respected when participating in any study

67
Q

General Ethical Principles

A

• Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
• Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
• Principle C: Integrity
• Principle D: Justice
• Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity

68
Q

Special Ethical Considerations

A

Potential participants that are not able to legally give informed consent, such children or other individuals of special populations

Two criteria for participation:
• Informed consent from parent/guardian
• Assent from potential participant

69
Q

deception/incomplete disclosure

A

• Some study may not reveal the true nature of the study until after participation is complete.
• Informed consent process may affect participants natural behavior/reactions.

If incomplete disclosure is used, participants must be told the true purpose of the study at the end of the experiment.

70
Q

Two Approaches to
Understanding Behaviour

A
  1. Hindsight (After-the-Fact Understanding)
  2. Understanding through Prediction, Control, and Theory Building
71
Q

Hindsight Reasoning

A
  • After-the-Fact Understanding
  • Perhaps the most common method we use to try to understand behaviour
  • is often the foundation on which further scientific inquiry is built
72
Q

Issues with Hindsight Reasoning

A
  • related past events can be explained in many creative, reasonable, and sometimes contradictory, ways.
  • There is no sure way to determine which—if any—of the alternatives is correct.
73
Q

Understanding through Prediction, Control, and Theory Building

A
  • If we understand the causes of a given behaviour, then we should be able to predict the conditions under which that behaviour will occur in the future
  • If we can control those conditions, then we should be able to produce that behaviour
74
Q

Characteristics of a Good Theory

A

• It incorporates existing facts and observetions within a single broad framework.

• It is testable.

• The predictions made by the theory are supported by the findings of new research.

• It conforms to the law of parsimony

75
Q

the law of parsimony

A

If two theories can explain and predict the same phenomena equally well, the simpler theory is the preferred one.

76
Q

Self-report measures

A

ask people to report on their own knowledge, beliefs, feelings, experi- ences, or behaviour.

77
Q

social desirability bias

A

the tendency to respond in a socially acceptable manner rather than according to how one truly feels or behaves

78
Q

reaction time

A

how rapidly a person responds to a stimulus

79
Q

reliable

A

consistent observations

80
Q

unobtrusive measures

A

record behaviour in a way that keeps participants unaware that cer- tain responses are being measured

81
Q

archival measures

A

records or documents that already exist

82
Q

descriptive research

A
  • seeks to identify how humans and other animals behave, particularly in natural settings
  • may yield clues about potential cause–effect relations that are later tested experimentally
83
Q

counterbalancing

A

a procedure in which the order of conditions is varied so that no condition has an overall advantage relative to the others

84
Q

Validity

A

how well an experimental procedure actually tests what it is designed to test

85
Q

high internal validity

A

confident that the independent variable really was the cause of differences in the dependent variable

86
Q

low internal validity

A

no longer can be sure what caused the differences in the dependent variable

87
Q

double-blind procedure

A

both the participant and the experimenter are kept blind as to which experimental condition the participant is in, simultaneously minimizes participant placebo effects and experimenter expectancy effects

88
Q

experimenter expectancy effects

A

the subtle and unintentional ways researchers influence their participants to respond in a manner that is consistent with the researcher’s hypothesis

89
Q

Replication

A

the process of repeating a study to determine whether the original findings can be duplicated

90
Q

meta-analysis

A

a statistical procedure for combining the results of different studies that examine the same topic to test the overall significance of the findings

91
Q

cross-cultural replication

A

amining whether findings generalize across different cultures

92
Q

Psychologists must do the following:
(6 things)

A

• Protect and promote the welfare of participants.
• Avoid doing harm to participants.
• Not carry out any studies unless the probable benefit is proportionately greater than the risk.
• Provide informed consent
• Take all reasonable steps to ensure that consent is not given under coercion.
• Ensure privacy and confidentiality.

93
Q

informed consent

A

explain all aspects of the procedure and ensure that the procedure is understood

PSYCH 105 (10 decks)

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