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PSYCH 105 > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

1
Q

Language

A

the grouping of spoken, written, or gestured symbols used to convey information

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2
Q

Properties of language

A

• Symbolic
• Semantic
• Generative
• Structured

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3
Q

Symbolic

A

People use spoken sounds and written words to represent objects, actions, events and ideas.

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4
Q

Semantic

A

Meaningful

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5
Q

Generative

A

A limited number of symbols can be combined in an infinite number of ways.

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6
Q

Structured

A

There are rules that govern the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences.

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7
Q

The Structure of Language

A

• Phonemes: smallest speech units (sounds)
• 100 possible, English – about 40
• Morphemes: smallest unit of meaning
• 50,000 in English
• Root words, prefixes, suffixes
• Semantics: meaning of words and word combinations
• Syntax: a system of rules for arranging words into
sentences
• Different rules for different languages

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8
Q

Grammar

A

the systematic rules of a language • Includes words, tenses, and syntax

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9
Q

Theories of Language Acquisition

A

• Behaviourist
• Skinner
• Learning of specific verbal responses
• Nativist
• Chomsky
• Learning the rules of language
• Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
• Interactionist
• Cognitive, social communication, and emergentist theories
• Culture, language, and thought
• Linguistic relativity

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10
Q

Skinner’s Environmental Theory of Language

A

• Language is verbal behaviour acquired through conditioning and imitation
• Reinforcement mediated by another person
• Speaker is more likely to ask for something in the future when she gets what she asked for
• Speaker is less likely to say something if they are punished for saying it

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11
Q

Evidence for Skinner’s Environmental Theory of Language

A

• Specific caretaker speech patterns associated with improved word recognition in 18 month-olds

• Reduced speech rate in mothers associated with decrease in children’s stuttering

• Encouragement, praise, or elaboration on child’s play behavior → reaching language milestones sooner

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12
Q

Evidence against Skinner’s Environmental Theory of Language

A

• It cannot explain the overwhelming and rapid development of human language in early childhood
• To explain this, many claim that we are neurologically predisposed to develop language and that these innate constraints primarily influence language acquisition.

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13
Q

Chomsky’s Nativist Theory of Language

A

• Brains are evolved to produce language through an internal Language acquisition device (LAD)

• Critical periods for language demonstrate a biological constraint
• Sensitive period may be more accurate

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14
Q

Evidence for Chomsky’s Nativist Theory of Language

A

• Similarities across the human species regarding the process of language development
• Children across cultures acquire nouns before verbs
• Grammatical structure varies little between cultures
• Default tendency of gestures

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15
Q

An Emergentist Perspective

A

• Bridges the gap between nativist and environmentalist (behavioural) approaches

= both nature and nurture contribute to the development of language

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16
Q

Aphasia

A

inability or difficulty in producing speech

• Mostly lower frontal lobe trauma

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17
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

• Broca’s Patient Tan could only say “tan” after head trauma

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18
Q

Two Important Findings from Bronca’s Aphasia

A
  1. There seemed to be an area of the brain controlling speech
  2. Language production appeared to be controlled by the left hemisphere
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19
Q

Wernicke’s or fluent aphasia

A

Wernicke’s patient could produce speech, but it was nonsense

• Mostly temporal lobe trauma
• Wernicke’s area responsible for speech comprehension

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20
Q

What is the purpose of language?

A
  1. Communicate thoughts, ideas, and feelings
  2. Facilitate social communication
  3. Connect abstract concepts to the real world
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21
Q

Mental lexicon

A

Internal storage of words and related concepts in the mind

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22
Q

Mental Lexicon Construction

A
  1. Phonemes – letter and syllable sounds
    • Lexical (/ē/) neighbors: flea, tree, pea, glee, knee, brie, and spree
  2. Morphemes – smallest unit of language
    • Lexical neighbors: ante (before) and trans (across)
  3. Semantics – word meanings
    • Lexical neighbors: book, novel, tome, essay, manual, and text
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23
Q

Theory of Family Resemblance

A

• Object classification dependent on connections and representations
• Decide word meaning based on overlap between other items

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24
Q

Prototype

A

most common, or typical, form a word assumes when we imagine it

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25
Q

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

A

• A theory which posits the structural differences in language can alter one’s perception and understanding of reality

= the language someone learns can impact how they think and perceive the world around them
• Also known as linguistic relativity hypothesis

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26
Q

Problem Solving

A

• Sequential process from initial problem state to desired end goal

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27
Q

Problem solving ability influenced by:

A

• nature of the problem = it’s difficulty
• the way you approach the problem
• past experiences
• general knowledge • available strategies

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28
Q

Mental Set

A

expectation of how to solve a problem
• Mental set influences how we approach a problem
• Can lead to fixations
• Past experience or expectations can influence how we approach a problem
• Narrows our ability to think of novel solutions

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29
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

tendency to view an object as only having one function, the one that is commonly used for, and neglecting to see other possible uses

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30
Q

Algorithm

A

precise set of rules applied in order to solve a problem

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31
Q

Trial-and-error

A

apply a sequence of possible strategies until the solution is reached

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32
Q

Heuristics

A

short-cut rules that are applied to solve problems = “rule of thumb”

• May not lead to accurate solutions but work to provide quick, efficient solutions

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33
Q

Means-end heuristic

A

Keep the end goal in mind (goal-state) and take whatever measures necessary to attain that goal

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34
Q

Representative heuristic

A

problem solver mentally comparing something to our stored prototype of an event, object, or person
• Assume something belongs to a category because it seems like the prototype
• Beneficial because it helps us intuitively solve problems quickly
• But can also lead to errors in problem solving

35
Q

Availability heuristic

A
  • Rule of thumb that we accurately estimate frequencies of events based on how difficult it is to think of them
  • causes us to base judgments and decisions on the availability of information in memory
36
Q

Creativity

A
  1. Preparation – become familiar with a topic
  2. Incubation – taking a break from effortful problem solving
  3. Illumination – insight or suddenly realizing solution to problem
  4. Evaluation – decide how good your solution is
37
Q

Confirmation Bias

A

Only pay attention to evidence that supports our original position
• Ignore disconfirming evidence

38
Q

Framing

A

refers to the idea that the same information, problem, or options can be structured and presented in different ways and how you present information influences the choices people make

39
Q

Dual-Process Theory

A

System 1
• Fast
• Heuristics
• Experience and emotions (intuition) used
• Rely on emotional centers of the brain

System 2
• Slow
• Logical thinking
• Recruit higher order thinking areas of the brain

40
Q

Concept

A
  • mental categories, or classes, that share certain characteristics
  • Many concepts are based on prototypes
41
Q

cognitive psychology

A

the study of men- tal processes, especially from a model that views the mind as an information processor

42
Q

deductive reasoning

A

reasoning from a general principle to a specific case

  • Deductive conclusions are certain to be true if the premises are true, but inductive reasoning leads to likelihood rather than certainty
43
Q

inductive reasoning

A

reasoning that proceeds from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion or principle

44
Q

Unsuccessful deductive reasoning can result from…

A

(1) failure to select relevant information
(2) failure to apply the appropriate deductive-reasoning rules
(3) belief bias
(4) emotional reactions and framing effects

45
Q

Problem Solving Steps

A

(1) understanding the nature of the problem
(2) establishing initial hypotheses or potential solutions
(3) testing the solutions against existing evidence
(4) evaluating the results of these tests

46
Q

Mental representations

A
  • images, ideas, concepts, and principles
  • Humans have the ability to create mental representations of the world and to manipulate them in the forms of language, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
47
Q

Psycholinguistics

A

the scientific study of the psychological aspects of language, such as how people understand, produce, and acquire language

48
Q

Four Properties Essential to Language

A
  1. Symbols
  2. Structure
  3. Meaning
  4. Generatively

Bonus: Displacement

49
Q

Syntax

A

the rules that govern the order of words

50
Q

Semantics

A

the meaning of words and sentences

51
Q

Generativity

A

the symbols of lan- guage can be combined to generate an infinite number of messages that have novel meaning

52
Q

surface structure

A
  • consists of the symbols that are used and their order
  • Sentences can have different surface struc- tures but the same deep structure
53
Q

deep structure

A
  • refers to the underlying meaning of the combined symbols
  • a single surface structure can give rise to two deep structures
54
Q

phoneme

A
  • the smallest unit of speech sound in a language that can signal a difference in meaning
  • various vowel and consonant sounds, as well as certain letter combinations such as th and sh
55
Q

morphemes

A
  • the smallest units of meaning in a language
  • dog, log, and ball
  • prefixes and suffixes such as pre-, un-, -ed, and -ous
56
Q

discourse

A
  • sentences are combined into paragraphs, articles, books, conversations, and so forth.
  • the sixth and most comprehensive level
57
Q

speech segmentation

A

perceiving where each word within a spoken sentence begins and ends

58
Q

pragmatics

A
  • a knowledge of the practical aspects of using language
  • social context
59
Q

bottom-up processing

A

individual elements of a stimulus are analyzed and then combined to form a unified perception

60
Q

top-down processing

A

sensory information is interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas, and expectations

61
Q

language acqui- sition device (LAD)

A

an innate biological mechanism that contains the general grammati- cal rules common to all languages

62
Q

child-directed speech

A

a high-pitched intonation that seems to be used all over the world

63
Q

Jerome Bruner, language acquisition support system (LASS)

A
  • represent factors in the social environment that facilitate the learning of a language
  • when LAD and LASS interact in a mutually supportive fashion, normal language development occurs.
64
Q

telegraphic speech

A

consist of a noun and a verb (e.g., “Want cookie”), with nonessential words left out as in a telegraph message

65
Q

propositional thought

A
  • verbal sentences that we say or hear in our minds
  • “I’m hungry” or “It’s almost time for dinner.”
66
Q

imaginal thought

A

consists of images that we can see, hear, or feel in our mind

67
Q

motoric thought

A

relates to mental representations of motor movements, such as throwing an object

68
Q

propositions

A

statements that express ideas

69
Q

Concepts

A

basic units of semantic memory—mental categories into which we place objects, activities, abstrac- tions (such as “liberal” and “conservative”), and events that have essential features in common

70
Q

Belief bias

A

the tendency to abandon logical rules in favour of our own personal beliefs

71
Q

Problem-solving schemas

A

mental blueprints or step-by-step scripts for selecting information and solving spe- cialized classes of problems

72
Q

Algorithms

A

are formulas or procedures that automatically generate correct solutions

73
Q

means-ends analysis

A

we identify differences between the present situation and the desired state, or goal, and then make changes that will reduce these differences

74
Q

subgoal analysis

A

formulating subgoals, or intermediate steps, toward a solution

75
Q

Overconfidence

A

the tendency to overestimate one’s correctness in factual knowledge, beliefs, and decisions

76
Q

schema

A

a mental framework, an organized pattern of thought about some aspect of the world

77
Q

script

A
  • Another type of schema
  • a mental framework concerning a sequence of events that usually unfolds in a regular, almost standardized order
78
Q

wisdom

A

represents a system of knowledge about the meaning and conduct of life

79
Q

Five Major Components of Wisdom

A
  1. Rich factual knowledge about life.
  2. Rich procedural knowledge about life.
  3. An understanding of lifespan contexts.
  4. An awareness of the relativism of values and priorities.
  5. The ability to recognize and manage uncertainty.
80
Q

mental image

A

a representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain rather than from external sen- sory input

81
Q

visual neglect

A
  • fail to visually perceive objects on the other side of their visual field
  • if you showed patients who have left-side visual neglect the picture of the island in Figure 9.29 and asked them to draw a copy, they would draw the right side of the island but fail to copy the left side
82
Q

metacognition

A

refers to your awareness and understanding of your own cognitive abilities

83
Q

metacomprehension

A

people who display good metacomprehension are accurate in judging what they do or don’t know, whereas people with poor metacomprehension have difficulty judging what they actually do and don’t understand

84
Q

metamemory

A

represents your awareness and knowledge of your memory capabilities

PSYCH 105 (10 decks)

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