The Creation of the Kingdom of Italy, 1856-61

Question 1

How did Cavour coordinate with Daniele Manin and Garibaldi in 1856?

Answer 1

• Cavour met Manin and, although they had their disagreements, their meeting was a step towards change, with Manin accepting leadership in Italy might be under a Piedmontese monarch and not a republic
• Cavour met with Garibaldi to discuss possible war with Austria
• Such meetings were very important, as they demonstrated the republican movement was prepared to get behind Piedmont

Question 2

How did Cavour keep up dialogue with Napoleon III?

Answer 2

Cavour didn’t want France and Napoleon III to think he was organising and backing a group of dangerous radicals.

After the Congress of Paris, Cavour and Napoleon had kept up a dialogue through Napoleon’s nephew, Prince Jerome, and Cavour’s trusted friend Niagra.

Question 3

Why was Napoleon III in Italy in 1830-1, and why was he expelled from Rome?

Answer 3

The Bonaparte family had been exiled from France as part of the Vienna Settlement of 1815, and he happened to be in Italy at tis time

He was expelled from Rome when he tried to capture the Pope’s castle at Saint Angelo to proclaim his cousin Napoleon I’s son king of Italy. He would have ruled on his behalf as regent as Nap’s son was a prisoner of the Austrians.

The Austrians got wind of this and arrested those involved.

Question 4

Why did Napoleon III’s attitude towards Italy change after December 1848, and why did he come to the Pope’s aid in 1849?

Answer 4

• He was elected president of the French Republic in 1849 and had to behave as a leader, becoming a counter revolutionary to the Roman Republic
• He wanted to win the support of the Catholic Church and Catholics at home, striking a blow against the Austrians who were threatening Rome as well

Question 5

How did Napoleon III exhibit political cunning in the April-June 1849, but why also may his actions be seen as an error of judgement?

Answer 5

He agreed to an armistice with Mazzini to buy time so that he could reinforce his army in order to attack Mazzini. 10,000 - 20,000 men

As an error of judgement, he became the champion of the most illiberal regime in Europe. Many claimed that he had betrayed Republican principles

Question 6

Why did Napoleon III get involved in Italy, and what were his plans for central Italy?

Answer 6

He wanted to drive out Austria and create an enlarged Piedmont, big enough to be a useful ally but not too big to threaten independence from France, and it should not interfere French ambition to get Nice and Savoy. He wanted to replace Austrian influence with French.

His plan for central Italy was for it to be part of Piedmont, or to create a separate French controlled state, perhaps governed by one of Napoleon’s many cousins.

Question 7

What happened in the Orsini plot?

Answer 7

January 1858, an attempt was made on Napoleon III’s life by 4 Italian nationalists, led by one Count Felice Orsini.

Orsini made 3 large bombs in London, outwitting French police by moving though Brussels. A bomb was thrown at Napoleon and his wife Eugenie on the way to an opera.

8 dead, 150 injured. Napoleon and his wife were unharmed.

Question 8

What was suspicious about the Orsini plot?

Answer 8

Orsini aimed to kill Napoleon so that he would be replaced by a new, Republican government in France which would help Italy.

The letter he wrote on this matter appealed to Napoleon to help Italy get independence. Some even believe Napoleon dictated the contents.

Was it genuine or did Napoleon want an excuse to invade Italy/fight Austria?

Question 9

How did Victor Emmanuel II calm tensions following the Orsini bomb plot?

Answer 9

Initially, Napoleon III was incredibly bitter towards Piedmont as they had allowed Orsini to avoid arrest and make his way to France.

At his point, VEII saved the day and did a great service to Italy by presenting Piedmont as the best guarantee against the excesses of radicals. This, combined with Napoleon’s long standing desire to “do something for Italy”, clamed his nerves.

A visit from his confidant Dr Conneau, to Turin in June 1858, raised hopes of direct cooperation between the two states against Austria.

Question 10

When and what was the Pact of Plombieres?

Answer 10

A highly secret meeting between Cavour and Napoleon at Plombieres on the 21st July, 1858. Plans drawn up for military intervention, enlargement of Piedmont, etc.

It seems like the outcomes were more in Napoleons favour than Cavour’s which shows that Cavour was an opportunist willing to compromise to achieve the liberation of northern Italy.

Question 11

How did the great powers play into the terms agreed by the pact of Plombieres?

Answer 11

• Austria was to be seen as the aggressors who provoked the war. If France provoked the war, Prussia might defend Austria
• Feared that Britain would not tolerate replacing Austrian control of Italy with French control so Napoleon had to appear to be protecting the weaker Piedmont
• Naples would remain as it was because Napoleon didn’t want to upset the Tsar of Russia who was an ally of the Bourbons

Question 12

How would Italy be divided under the Pact of Plombieres?

Answer 12

• A Kingdom of Upper Italy, ruled by the House of Savoy, over Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia, the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the Papal legations
• A Kingdom of Central Italy, controlled by Tuscany, including Umbria and the Papal Marches
• Rome and the surrounding area would remain under control of the Pope, leading an Italian confederation
• Naples remained as to avoid anger from Russia
• France would get Nice and Savoy in return for 200,000 soldiers

Question 13

How was the Pact of Plombieres sealed?

Answer 13

The marriage of the 15 year old daughter of Victor Emmanuel II, Marie Clotilde, to the middle aged prince Jerome Bonaparte, referred to as ‘Plon-plon’ by peers. (the real tragedy of the war)

Question 14

Why was VEII worried about army preparations for war with Austria?

Answer 14

Struggling to produce an army of 100,000 to match Napoleon III’s promise of 200,000 French troops, having just 20,000 untrained volunteers from the National Society, and 60,000 Piedmontese soldiers

Question 15

When did Piedmont first prepare for war in 1859?

Answer 15

• 10th January, VEII makes his Cry of Anguish (Grido di dolore) speech
• March, Piedmonts mobilises its army

Question 16

How did Austria respond to early Piedmontese mobilisation in 1859?

Answer 16

• April, Austria mobilised (costly for Austria, they could not afford to mobilise for long)
• 23rd April, Austria demanded Piedmont demobilise within 3 days
• 29th April, Austria declared war, General Franz Gyulai invaded Piedmont, but was delayed by poor weather, giving time for the French forces to arrive by rail to support Piedmont

Question 17

How prepared was Austria for war in 1859?

Answer 17

• Commanded by ‘courtier soldiers’ (nobles, not always career soldiers)
• Took 10 days to mobilise
• Only partial mobilisation as troops had to be left in Hungary
• 90,000 troops

Question 18

How prepared were France and Piedmont by the start of the war?

Answer 18

• Piedmontese officers were reluctant to engage, wanted to leave fighting to the French
• The army arrived by train, but in advance of their supplies. Some men died of exposure before even getting to the battlefield!

Question 19

What happened at the battle of Magenta?

Answer 19

• 30,000 French troops moved across the Ticino towards the village of Magenta as to form a bridgehead
• Close nature of country, irrigation canals and streams, precluded elaborate manoeuvres
• Austrians turned every house into a miniature fortress.
• Brunt of the fighting was by 5,000 grenadiers of the French imperial guard
• Decisive victory by the 4th June, not a single Piedmontese soldier lost his life
• Battle so bloody that it led to the creation of the Red Cross and the colour ‘Magenta’

Question 20

What happened at the battle of Solferino?

Answer 20

• Austrians retreated to the Quadrilateral fortresses in Lombardy. Austrian emperor Franz Josef (legend lived that long) himself takes control of the Austrian army in northern Italy
• Battle deteriorated into a series of attacks and counter attacks, ranging over 60 square miles, with the allies committing piecemeal forces to the attack the second they arrived
• Battle ranged from 21st to 24th June, and eventually the Austrians were driven back into the Quadrilaterals
• Allies took 17,000 casualties out of 137,000
• Austrians took 21,000 casualties out of 128,000

Question 21

What was the result of the Battle of Solferino?

Answer 21

• 11th July, Franz Josef, defeated in battle and facing a revolution in Hungary, met with Napoleon III, who was badly affected by Solferino’s large number of casualties and fearful that a drawn out campaign would allow Prussia to enter the conflict
• They together signed an armistice without consulting the Sardinian allies

Question 22

How and when did the National Society encourage change in Tuscany?

Answer 22

April 1859, a popular demonstration in Florence caused the Grand Duke Leopold to flee and the creation of a provisional government by Baron Bettino Ricasoli, who would arrange the annexation of Tuscany to Piedmont

Question 23

How and when did the National Society encourage change in Modena and Parma?

Answer 23

• May 1859, The National Society organised a peaceful revolution in Modena and Parma, leading the ruler to flee and leaving a provisional government in control
• June 1859, The Duke of Modena and the Duchess Regent of Parma fled their provinces, replaced by a government led by Luigi Farini, close to Piedmont. All major government decisions were being approved by Turin, making this area almost a Piedmontese colony

Question 24

How did the National Society affect the Papal States?

Answer 24

June 1859, unrest developed in the Papal controlled region of Bologna. Piedmontese commissioners, mostly members of the National Society, moved in to restore government

Question 25

Why did Napoleon III sue for peace?

Answer 25

• Advanced weaponry resulted in high casualties
• One doctor per 500 casualties on the allied side
• France did not think Piedmont could sustain the conflict much longer, lacking equipment and expertise
• Austria had retreated to the Quad, which would require a lengthy and expensive siege
• Cavour seemed increasingly interested in the Central Duchies, beyond the Pact of Plombieres. Napoleon also believed the Papal States to be under threat
• 24th June, 1859, the Prussian army mobilised on the banks of the Rhine

Question 26

Why did Cavour resign in protest at the Treaty of Villafranca?

Answer 26

• Piedmont was exclude from talks between Franz Josef and Napoleon III on the 11th July at Villafranca
• Napoleon disapproved of events in the Central Duchies, seeing they went beyond Plombieres and threatened the Pope
• Napoleon felt he was under attack from French Catholics for allowing this attack on the Pope

Question 27

What was the proposed peace at Villafranca (The Treaty of Villafranca)?

Answer 27

• Austria gave Lombardy to France, who might then choose to give it to Piedmont. Venetia remained Austrian
• Piedmont not to be given control of Modena or Parma, and the rulers were to be restored. Forbidden to annex Mantua and Peschiera in Lombardy, being Quad forts
• An Italian confederation was to be set up, with the Pope as the head, as agreed at Plombieres
• France would not take Nice and Savoy, as the terms of Plombieres were not fully met

Question 28

What formally ended the War in November 1859?

Answer 28

The Treaty of Zurich ended the war, and Napoleon argued that the issue of central Europe should be decided by a Congress of European powers.

This idea was rejected and Napoleon seemed to be losing control of the situation in Italy

Question 29

How did a pamphlet written on behalf of Napoleon go against the Church after the war?

Answer 29

In December, a pamphlet called The Pope and the Congress’ suggested the Pope should lose control of the Legations.

Napoleon seemed prepared to upset French Catholics and he gained support from GB

Question 30

What did the British Foreign Secretary propose which influenced the powers at play in Italy?

Answer 30

He proposed that the future of the Italian peninsula should be decided through the principle of self-determination

Question 31

When did Cavour return as PM and what did he do?

Answer 31

• Returned as PM on the 21st January, 1860, and negotiated the Treaty of Turin with Napoleon III
• They agreed that Savoy and Nice be handed over to France (subject to a plebiscite), if Napoleon would agree with the Piedmontese annexation of the Central Duchies

Question 32

What resulted from the Treaty of Turin?

Answer 32

• A series of plebiscites in the Central Duchies, where Cavour used war and propaganda to drum up nationalist feelings
• Emilia (Parma, Romagna, and Modena declared themself unified under Luigi Farini the month prior) voted 426,000 to 1,506 in favour of annexation by Piedmont
• Tuscany voted 366,571 to 14,925 in favour (however, 153,000 abstained)

Question 33

What did France gain from the Treaty of Turin?

Answer 33

• In April, 130,583 voted in favour of French speaking Savoy joining France, with only 285 objections
• In Italian speaking Nice (Garibaldi’s birth place), 24,448 voted in favour of joining France, whilst 160 were against. Napoleon had the vote taken place when the French army were passing though on their way home from Lombardy

Question 34

What was Garibaldi’s early life like?

Answer 34

• Born a French citizen in Nice in 1807, was 8 when Nice became part of Piedmont following the Congress of Vienna
• He, and his parents, saw themselves as Italians
• At 15, joined his father as a merchant sailor
• In 1831, in a chance encounter in Marseilles, he met Mazzini, altering the course of his life forever
• Garibaldi joined Young Italy in 1833 and became part of Mazzini’s revolutionary plans in Piedmont. The plot went wrong and Garibaldi was sentenced to death

Question 35

What was Garibaldi doing in South America?

Answer 35

• Escaped Piedmont and fled to South America, where he stayed for 12 years, first in Rio.
• Discovered a branch of Young Italy and became involved in revolutionary plans, becoming a pirate and joining a rebel army in Brazil
• Fell in love with and ran away with a fisherman’s wife called Anita, who became his jealous, devoted companion over the next 10 years.

Question 36

What sort of actions did Garibaldi take part in in South America?

Answer 36

• After 6 years of fighting he moved to Montevideo to sell spaghetti. Becoming bored, he joined the Uruguayan army and fought against Argentinian takeover
• He raised an Italian legion of guerrilla fighters, who were largely responsible for the victory.

Question 37

Where did Garibaldi’s red shirts come from?

Answer 37

• Originated in that war between Uruguay and Argentina, where they wore those red shirts for the first time
• He had seen the shirt worn by local slaughter men; it was cheap, easy to make, and, being red, did not show blood
• Later he would add sleeves and brass buttons after being inspired by the New York fire brigade
• After returning to Italy, the production of these shirts was willingly undertaken by a young seamstress

Question 38

Who was Garibaldi, the man?

Answer 38

• Lived a simple life and ate little. He was rather rough in the manner, but was generally good humoured
• He could be ruthless and determined
• His main interests were fighting and women, collecting a large number of women over the years, including three wives
• Scandal and gossip followed him, but nobody could hide his success and reputation as a leader of soldiers and his devotion to the Italian cause

Question 39

What was the reaction to Garibaldi when he returned to Italy in 1848?

Answer 39

Established a near religious adoration from ordinary people, with street songs, ballads, and popular prints showing him as semi-divine

His image was being placed next to the Madonna in homes, and his charisma amongst the people was overwhelming

Question 40

What did Garibaldi immediately do upon returning to Italy in 1848?

Answer 40

He returned with 60 men and immediately offered his services to Charles Albert, despite being a republican

The King distrusted him and refused to see him. Nobody seemed to want the Garabaldini. He joined the revolutionary government of Milan, but once Charles Albert lost at Custozza, most legionaries deserted.

Garibaldi believed Charles Albert was the only man to unite Italy and defeat Austria. Mazzini was hurt, but Garibaldi was single-minded in his devotion to the Italian cause.

Question 41

What did an Austrian general remark about Garibaldi?

Answer 41

“the one man who could have helped Piedmont win the 1848 war was the one man they turned their backs on.”

Question 42

What was Garibaldi’s role in the Roman Republic?

Answer 42

Garibaldi arrived in Rome just as the city prepared to defend itself from the French. The early French attacks were driven off, but soon reinforcements arrived. The defenders were fighting in vain.

Garibaldi appeared before the Roman assembly with his sword so bent from fighting, it wouldn’t fit into his scabbard and recommended a withdraw to Venetia to support the republic, which was under siege from the Austrian army.

Question 43

What did Garibaldi say to a crowd in the Piazza of St. Peter in Rome?

Answer 43

“Fortune, who betrays us today, will smile on us tomorrow. I am going out from Rome. Let those who wish to continue to war against the stranger, come with me. I offer neither pay, nor quarters, nor provisions; I offer hunger, thirst, forced marches, battles and death. Let him who loved his country in his heart, and not with his lips only, follow me.”

Question 44

How many followed Garibaldi’s march to the coast/Venetia?

Answer 44

5,000 men volunteered to join Garibaldi on the march north.

After 800km, only 1,500 men reached the coast. Even Garibaldi’s wife, Anita, died and he was unable to bury her. Her cadaver was eaten by dogs.

Garibaldi escaped to Genoa and then fled to North America.

Question 45

What did Garibaldi do while in exile from Italy?

Answer 45

In America he again became a sailor, until he inherited some money from his brother, using this to buy half of the small island of Caprera off the coast of Sardinia.

He took up farming, but kept in touch with the National Society. With reform in Piedmont, Cavour invited Garibaldi to discuss his plans to force war on Austria.

Garibaldi offered to train and recruit volunteers. He was now firmly behind the Piedmontese king.

Question 46

What did Garibaldi do early on in the 1859 War with Austria?

Answer 46

Garibaldi took part in something known as the ‘Alpine Campaign’.

With 3,000 volunteers, his presence offended the Austrians. Once the French army arrived, Garibaldi’s army was sent North, advancing along the Alps against the Austrians right flank, against General Karl von Urban.

He was always ahead of the main Allied army, trying to pressure the Austrians from the right flank again when they were in the Quad.

Although the Alpine campaign had little impact on the outcome of the war, it did demonstrate that Garibaldi was capable of beating high quality Austrian troops.

Question 47

How did Garibaldi react to the peace agreement at the end of the war?

Answer 47

As part of the agreement with Napoleon, Nice and Savoy were ceded to France; the handing over of Nice, his city of birth, was a bitter blow to Garibaldi.

He referred to Cavour as “a low intriguer”. Spicy.

Question 48

What did Garibaldi do after the end of the war between Piedmont and Austria?

Answer 48

Garibaldi was preparing to march with his followers to defend Nice from the French, but then heard about an uprising taking place in Sicily against the King of Naples.

Mazzini urged Garibaldi to take his men and help the Young Italy movement there, and so Garibaldi gathered together a force of 1,200 volunteers.

In May 1860, “The Thousand” set sail, with his current mistress and a thousand rifles, but no ammunition, aboard two old paddle streamers. He left in the name of “Italy and Victor Emmanuel”.

Question 49

How did Cavour react to Garibaldi’s expedition?

Answer 49

Cavour sensed the trip would fail, with too few men and poor weapons. He was uncertain whether he wanted it to succeed, as the South was exceptionally poor and backwards for Piedmont to take over.

He thusly refused to grant Garibaldi’s request for equipment, and made it clear that Garibaldi did not have official support. Some reports suggest he tried to have him arrested but was too late.

Cavour also made it known to his confidential agent in Paris that he was worried about popular reaction, as Garibaldi had immense public support.

He was comforted that Garibaldi could well be killed.

Question 50

How successful was Garibaldi in Sicily?

Answer 50

Reached Marsala on 11th May, but arrived alongside British naval ships, so he wasn’t attacked. After this landing, he advances towards Palermo, the islands capital, gathering support along the way and defeating a Neapolitan army in hand-to-hand fighting.

The Thousand now numbered 3,000, and arrived at Palermo by the end of May with 20,000 enemy troops awaiting them, but he still won and the enemy retreated to Naples. He was helped by marauding peasants, bandits, and the local mafia.

Question 51

How did Garibaldi govern in Sicily after the successful invasion in May?

Answer 51

Appointed himself as dictator and initially supported the peasantry. He abolished milling tax and promised land redistribution.

He soon changed sides, suppressing peasant revolts, and gained support of the landlords. This betrayal of Mazzinian principles was because he needed stability to launch an attack on the mainland

He introduced Piedmontese law, but did not pass over the island to VEII, as he though he’d lose the power to attack Naples. Cavour was now worried that Garibaldi was too popular and he wanted the acclaim for Piedmont.

Question 52

How successful was Garibaldi’s attack on Naples?

Answer 52

Cavour was worried Garibaldi would attempt to take Naples and move northwards so he tried to arrange a revolution in Naples in favour of VEII, but this failed. Next, Cavour gave orders to stop Garibaldi and sent ships to arrest them but Garibaldi was too quick and crossed the straits to Calabria on 22 August

Although outnumbered, he fought his way northwards towards the city of Naples. The King fled Naples and Garibaldi arrived by train in early September.

Question 53

How did Garibaldi rule Naples?

Answer 53

He ruled as dictator for two months, unable to advance north due to a Neapolitan stronghold.

His plan, though, was to move northwards, to the Papal States, and then to Rome, and so complete the geographical unification of Italy. This gave Cavour the time to act.

Question 54

Why did Cavour want to stall Garibaldi?

Answer 54

Cavour feared an attack on Rome would lead to difficulties with France. Napoleon III was already upset as Garibaldi had landed a small force in the Papal States on his way north two months earlier

The message was clear - if the Pope was threatened, then Catholic Europe would come to its defence. Also, the Garibaldini was now 60,000 strong, many of whom were Mazzinian and opposed the Church

Many were also republican and Cavour feared that power could slip away from Piedmont and VEII

Question 55

How did Cavour decide on opposing Garibaldi when he entered the Papal States, and why did he think he could do so?

Answer 55

Cavour doubted that Garibaldi could maintain such a large army of irregulars. His most pressing issues was to stop an attack on Rome and the only way to do that was to send an army from Piedmont though the Papal States

Led by Victor Emmanuel, his army marched south, defeating a Papal army on the way and shooting anyone who resisted them as traitors.

Question 56

How did Garibaldi meet up outside Rome?

Answer 56

In October, the Piedmontese army reached Neapolitan territory, with VEII and Garibaldi met on 26th October in a highly tense scene at Teano.

Garibaldi had no intention of causing problems, saluted Victor Emmanuel as “the first King of Italy”, and agreed to hand the south over to him. In ballots that soon followed in Sicily, Naples, Umbria, and the Papal Marches there was an overwhelming wish for annexation to Piedmont

With all previous rulers gone there seemed no alternative.

Question 57

How did Garibaldi and VEII deal with Naples, and what did Garibaldi gain from all this?

Answer 57

On November 7th VEII and Garibaldi rode together in a triumphal entry into Naples. Garibaldi ignored a radical call for a union with Piedmont and arranged plebiscites for the annexation of the South to Piedmont.

The overwhelmingly one sided result was little surprise as they were a façade. Garibaldi was offered title of Major General, the title of prince, a large pension and even a castle

Garibaldi refused them all because he felt the Red Shirts were being treated badly and they soon disbanded. Garibaldi returned to Caprera with a year’s supply of macaroni and very little else (chad thundercock over here)

Question 58

How did the Great Powers initially react to the unification of Italy?

Answer 58

Caused some concern among the Great Powers as they feared a strong Italy could shift the balance of power in Europe, especially as they were friends with a Bonaparte

The British opposed the handing over of Nice and Savoy to French expansionism, and Russia broke diplomatic ties with Italy over the unseating of the Bourbons in Naples

Austria reinforced its army in Venetia, which was followed by Britain and Palmerston giving their full backing to the newly unified Italy as they saw it as the popular will of the people. This action effectively stopped an other country attacking the new state

Question 59

How did Piedmont initialise its presence in Italy?

Answer 59

In January 1861 elections were held for the new parliament and in March 1861 a new constitution was adopted. Victor Emmanuel was now the new king of the Kingdom of Italy.

Cavour now wanted Garibaldi out of political life. As far as they were concerned, his job was done. All but Rome and Venetia had been united and the constitution of Piedmont was adapted for the whole of Italy.

Garibaldi, however, did not agree that the job was finished. He had his eyes fixed firmly on Rome.