The birth of democratic Germany 1917-1919 Flashcards
What was the Burgfriede, and what was its impact?
A political truce, Burgfriede, was agreed between all political parties to secure loans to finance the war. Even the SPD, pacifists, promised their support for a defensive war, voting for war credits in August 1914
Failure to secure a quick victory and the onset of a stalemate by Christmas 1914 did much to undermined the August 1914 enthusiasm. However, critics remained few in the first half of the war, and the public mood remained confident of eventual victory.
When did views of the war begin to change away from eventual victory?
During 1916, with the losses of Verdun and on the Somme, that doubts began to be expressed about the way the war was going
The Burgfriede had lasted well over two years during which time the government had faced nor real opposition from the public or the Reichstag
Who led the so called “Silent Dictatorship”?
In 1914, Hindenburg commanded troops at the successful Battle of Tannenberg, in which the Russian Second Army had been completely destroyed. He, along with his deputy, Ludendorff, were heroes in Germany and Chancellor Bethmann hoped to use their fame to unite Germany in the midst of the war
The Country began to be run by Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff who became leader of the Supreme Command in August 1916.
They simply had to threaten to resign to get their way with Bethmann and the Kaiser powerless to stop them
How did the Kaiser try and deal with the Silent Dictatorship?
Increasingly, the Kaiser exerted no real control over political and military affairs during the war. His self-confidence and determination deserted him with the onset of war
Despite being Commander-in-chief of the armed forces, he was kept in the dark on military developments and his advice was rarely sought. He became no more than a figurehead in the Germany political system
How did the Kaisers impotence impact Chancellor Bethmann?
Chancellor Bethmann did not have the backing of the Reichstag, despite the Burgfriede, and relied on the support of the Kaiser. As this support became increasingly unreliable, Bethmann and his government became increasingly isolated and unable to resist the military
What was the overall impact of the Silent Dictatorship on Germany?
Several opportunities for a negotiated peace were turned down, the Auxiliary Service Law was introduced and Bethmann was eventually sacked in 1917
He was replaced by ministers that the army favoured.
What was the Kreuznach program?
The basis of the Siegfried, and set out what Hindenburg and Ludendorff wanted to achieve
It called for annexation of the Baltic region, all Poland, Luxembourg, French coal and iron fields. It also wanted economic dominance over Belgium and territory from the country
Stated that Germany wanted control over Romanian oil fields and territory in the Balkans which may be given to her allies, Austria and Bulgaria
What did Bethmann think of the demands in the Kreuznach programme?
Bethmann said the demands were unrealistic and unachievable, but was forced to agree due to the strength of the silent dictatorship
What was the Zimmerman Telegram
Ludendorff had introduced unrestricted submarine warfare, with U-boats attacking any ship going to British ports. Bethmann opposed this as he believed it would bring the USA into the war
The British uncovered the Zimmerman Telegram in 1917, which was a message from Germany to Mexico asking for a military alliance if the USA joined the war.
This, combined with the Germans sinking the ship the Lusitania in 1915 (killing 1198 passengers), pushed the USA to join the war in April 1917
What was the July Crisis of 1917?
In February 1917, Russia experience a democratic revolution which inspired calls for political reform in Germany.
During the Kaiser’s Easter message, he said that once the war was over, he would reform the Prussian voting system, with Bethmann wanting him to go further but being blocked by Ludendorff
As a result, in July 1917, Bethmann was forced to resign and Michaelis was appointed Chancellor, someone who was manipulated (or ignored) by Hindenburg and Ludendorff
Why was Foreign Secretary Richard von Kuhlman sacked in 1917?
Forced to resign by Ludendorff because he wanted to pursue a policy against Russia that was deemed ‘weak’ by the army
What were the two versions of peace which Germans had sought in the war after it became clear there was a stalemate?
- Those that believed Germany was fighting a defensive war, not one aimed at conquest, a view mainly advocated by the SPD who suggested a peace should be based on compromise with no territorial gains
- There were those who argued for a Siegfried, a victory peace, in which Germany should use her position of strength to achieve it’s long-cherished, world power status
What did the Pan-German League seek from a Siegfried?
- Creation of a central African empire
- the annexation of key military and industrial regions in the Benelux and northern France
- The economic domination of western Europe for the benefit of Germany
- The annexation from Russia of extensive territories in the east
How did the politician Erzberger use the Reichstag to call for an end to the war?
- July 1917 Reichstag discussing extension of war credits that they voted through in 1914
- He used deliberations to make his views known
- Called for a “peace resolution”, a peace without victory to end Kreuznach
- Inter party committee set up to draft the resolution
- Approved by a resolution of 86 votes
How did Ludendorff and Hindenburg react to Erzberger’s peace resolution?
Opposed the idea, but used Bethmann’s support of the resolution to replace him with the weak Michaelis, who stopped the process
Ludendorff helped to found the new Vaterlandspartei which called for adherence to the Kreuznach programme. By 1918 the Vaterlandspartei had over 2 million members
Who founded the USPD and why?
SPD leader, Hugo Haase, changed his views on the war by the end of 1915, against many in his party. Haase resigned in 1916 and was replaced by Ebert
In March 1916, Haase and 18 other SPD deputies voted against the government’s emergency budget and left the SPD, forming the Labour Fellowship
In April 1917, inspired by events in Russia and mass strikes in Berlin, the group formed the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), with Haase as its first leader
Who comprised the Spartacus League (Spartakusbund)?
Formed by former members of the SPD who opposed war from 1914, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
They were both imprisoned from 1916-8 for protesting against the war and attempting to start a revolution. Liebknecht was the first SPD member to vote against war credits in 1914
The Spartacists supported the Bolsheviks in Russia
How large was the USPD?
Supported by Spartacists and the Revolutionary Shop Stewards, the USPD had 120,000 by 1918 and led strikes in January with over 1 million people
The German government accused the USPD of stabbing them in the back.
How impactful was the USPD during the war?
The USPD had little impact on the war effort, Germany was losing as America had brought 1 million men to the front in 1917, with 1 million more in 1918
They proved to be a useful scapegoat for the government who wanted a reason for the failure of the military
What was the KRA?
Led by Walther Rathenau, owner of AEG, it was the war raw materials department. It was intended to acquire, store, and distribute raw materials
KRA in chemicals + construction of chemical plants to produce nitrates artificially
In 6 months, KRA organised provisions of essential supplies, preventing munition crisis
How did the government utilise finance in the war?
Existing govt debt grew rapidly during the war, with war bonds being the only attempt to raise income as raising taxes on income and profits were rejected
Cost of war was put to one side until the end, where compensation could be demanded from subjugated countries
16% of the war cost was met with tax, war bonds and print money led to inflation
What did the Auxiliary Service Law and the Hindenburg Programme do?
ASL was supposed to mobilise all civilians for war service, with the law demanding service from all able-bodied Germans, curtailing freedoms
The Hindenburg Programme placed direct contracts with heavy industry to increase production
Both fell short and the problems of labour and production hindered the war effort
How many German soldiers died from the war?
1.8 million, or 16% of those conscripted
This was the highest of all combatants
How did food and fuel shortages inspire discontent on the home front?
1915, the govt killed 35% of pigs to save on grain, resulting in a meat shortage
The exceptionally cold winter of 1916 contributed to fuel and food shortages in cities and was nicknamed the ‘turnip winter’ because of potato crop failures forced Germans to rely on Turnips, which were usually used for animal fodder
Germany was reliant on imports for 1/3 of its food, making the Allied and blockade and fewer Agri workers devastating
How bad were civilian deaths during the war?
Civilian deaths from starvation and hypothermia increase from 121,000 in 1916 to 293,000 in 1918. During the war, 750,000 civilians died of starvation
The number of infant deaths increased by over 50%
How much worse off were workers during the war?
Longer hours, but wages fell below the inflation rate. Average prices doubled in Germany between 1914-8, whereas wages rose by only 50-75%
By April 1917, 200,000 workers were on strike in Berlin due to bread rationing. 2.5 million casualties by 1917 and the fact there was no end in sight meant that society was becoming ever more fractured
What was the treaty of Brest Litovsk?
Singed on March 3rd, 1918, which took Russia out of the war, giving vast land to Germany.
Huge reparations were demanded from Russia too, and the Reichstag voted to approve this treaty with only the USPD voting against
How did Ludendorff attempted to capitalise on the end of the eastern front, and how did it all go wrong?
March 1918, Ludendorff moved 52 divisions from the East to the Western Front and launched the Spring Offensive, which became bogged down
8th August, 1918, Germany suffered ‘the blackest day of the German army’ at the Battle of Amiens, where 16,000 German soldiers were captured
On the 29th September, Bulgaria pulled out of the war, and Ludendorff had to accept that the war was effectively over
How did Ludendorff inform the Kaiser of the war situation when it was clear all was lost in 1918?
In the German HQ in the Belgium town of Spa, on the 29th September, Ludendorff informed the Kaiser at ‘the Spa Conference’ that the war was lost. He was told of political changes needed in order for the regime to survive
The military high command decided that a ‘revolution from above’ was required to stop the monarch from being swept away by a ‘revolution from below’
Ludendorff made it clear that the military command distance itself from the negotiations as to remove responsibility and manufacture the ‘stab in the back’ myth
How did the Kaiser react to what Ludendorff (and by extension, Woodrow Wilson) sought?
Many Germans felt the Kaiser was a stumbling block on the move to reform and Woodrow Wilson even said as much in October - the Kaiser was an impediment to peace in Europe
Rather than deal with the situation, the Kaiser left Berlin on the 29th October to the Netherlands to escape and ignore the calls for his abdication
