Consolidating the Kingdom of Italy, 1861-70

Question 1

What obstacles did the French pose to Italian unity after 1861?

Answer 1

• French troops still in Rome and Napoleon III would not withdraw them
• In late 1860, Napoleon proposed that if Umbria and the Marches were returned to Papal power, and Abruzzi also, then the French would leave. This was unacceptable to VEII
• At a convention in September 1864 (The September Convention) Napoleon agreed to evacuate Rome in return for the switch of the Italian capital from Turin to Florence
• When the Italian government led by Minghetti agreed, there was a storm of protest and 23 people died in rioting in Turin. VEII sacked Minghetti

Question 2

What obstacles did the Austrians pose to Italian unity after 1861?

Answer 2

• They had lost Lombardy but they had no intention of quitting Venetia where they maintained a large army
• The Great Powers also supported Austria’s position to maintain the balance of power in Europe
• Cavour had tried to encourage Hungarian revolutionary leaders to start an uprising but it came to nothing
• Austria’s position was also weakened by the increased power of Prussia, who made a free trade treaty with France in 1862 and excluded Austria

Question 3

What threat did Austria and France both pose to Italy by 1861?

Answer 3

By 1861 both the French and the Austrians maintained their control over parts of Italy. They were both still militarily and diplomatically more powerful than the new Italian state.

Question 4

What happened to the Italian state in June 1861 and what followed?

Answer 4

• In June 1861, Italy lost it’s most successful politician, Cavour, to Malaria
• A succession of men followed Cavour. Ricasoli (1861-1862), Ratazzi (1862), Farini (1862-1863), Minghetti (1863-1864), and La Marmora (1864-1866).
• None of them were of the same calibre as Cavour and were largely ignorant of Italian politics

Question 5

How were Ricasoli and, more critically, Ratazzi weakened by Garibaldi?

Answer 5

Neither Ricasoli no Ratazzi objected to Garibaldi’s agitation over Rome.

In 1862, Garibaldi set up the ‘Society for the Emancipation of Rome’, and attempted to attack Rome

Ratazzi was forced to stop him with troops as not to upset the French, but now he was seem as anti Italian nationalism and was soon sacked

Question 6

What did all prime ministers after Cavour suffer from?

Answer 6

All ministers suffered from a lack of support from the King, combined with a weak parliamentary discipline

Farini even tried to stab the King and was removed from office!

Question 7

Why did Mazzini and Gioberti dislike the new Italian state?

Answer 7

There was no republic, as Mazzini had hoped, and no federation under the Pope as hoped for by Gioberti. Mazzini described the new Italy as a “sham”.

What a whiny bitch.

Question 8

Why could the new Italian state be seen as undemocratic?

Answer 8

The government was mostly made up of Piedmontese nobility and the educated middle class. An all male parliament was elected by a narrow electorate which made up 2% of the population (literate, male taxpayers from northern Italy), totally unrepresentative of the masses

There were 443 members of parliament elected by a mere 150,000 voters. The King even kept the title “the second” rather than VEI of Italy

Question 9

What were some early, positive legal changes to Italy?

Answer 9

• A single criminal legal code was adopted except for Tuscany and a civil law code was in the whole of Italy from 1865
• A unified Italian army was formed and modernised under Prussian guidance
• A unified Navy was formed
• Schools and universities came under state control as a way to create a unified education system

Question 10

Why was the Pope annoyed by the new state of Italy?

Answer 10

In March 1861, Cavour faced a lot of opposition from the Pope who had lost two-thirds of his land to the new kingdom

He was also threatened by the claims of nationalists for Rome as the natural capital of Italy

The Pope’s temporal power had also been largely destroyed by the Risorgimento and Cavour hoped that the Pope would give up Rome in return for Church freedom of action

Question 11

What was the Fractious cohabitation, and what did Catholics who supported the Pope suppose other Catholics should do?

Answer 11

The Church ignored Cavour and so began a period of Fractious Cohabitation, an uneasy relationship between church and state

In 1858, a Catholic paper editor Margotti had argued that Catholics should be “neither electors no elected”. The Church’s spiritual power was also under threat from scientific theory, such as Charles Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859)

Theologians, such as the French Catholic Renan, also said in the early 1860s that the Bible should not be treated as accurate.

Question 12

What did the Pope set out in his Syllabus of Errors in 1864?

Answer 12

1. The Church would retain control over the education system and all culture and science
2. The Catholic Church rejected all ideas of tolerance for other religions
3. The Church reasserted its temporal power
4. It criticised Liberalism, attacked religious toleration, freedom of expression and thought, as well as socialism, nationalism, and communism
5. It would not accept modern progress and modern civilisation

Question 13

How did the Italian state react to the Syllabus of Errors?

Answer 13

In response, the new Italian state, which had been rejected by the Pope in his earlier Allocution, began to attack Church property

They made the Church increase taxation to the state, and in 1866, demanded that the Church hand over property

Question 14

How did the Pope double down on his Syllabus of Errors?

Answer 14

The Church was losing its temporal power, so turned its attention more heavily to the spiritual role.

In 1869, the Vatican Council met and agreed to the Dogma of Papal Infallibility, which stated that the Pope’s statements were indisputable. When it was proclaimed in July 1870, it marked the spiritual supremacy of the Pope

The situation was made worse when the Pope declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican following the annexation of Rome in 1870

Question 15

What was the problem of the plebscites used in 1861?

Answer 15

Italy was socially, politically, and economically diverse. The plebiscites =in 1860 covered up many issued.

Firstly, people voted against the tyranny of the rulers and revolts of the peasantry, not really for unification

Secondly, the voting systems were corrupt, e.g. in Nice the “no” slips were not even brought to the voting stations. The “yes” voters didn’t really know what they were voting for. Was it a federation or a centralised one?

Question 16

How little understanding did the Piedmontese politicians have of the South, and what problems did Garibaldi leave in the South?

Answer 16

Piedmontese politicians had very little understanding of the South. Its backwardness and poverty meant it was unsuitable for unification with Piedmont.

An example of this was in 1859 when the Casati Law made primary education compulsory, yet it didn’t happen in the South as the majority were illiterate

As for Garibaldi, his invasion had promised land reform and improved living standards, but these weren’t forthcoming

Question 17

How did Cavour decide to deal with the South upon unification?

Answer 17

Both southern states, Sicily and Naples, had a long tradition of regional autonomy. After considering “self-government” for the south, Cavour decided to crush any opposition in the south, whether loyal to the Bourbons, the remnants of Garibaldi’s army, peasants demanding land reform or those hoping for some freedom.

Cavour ordered Farini south to crush opposition following an October 1860 uprising by Bourbon agents, leading thousands of peasants against the Pro Garibaldi national guards.

Question 18

What was Piedmontisation, and how far did Piedmont go in Naples?

Answer 18

The new government in Turin decided to impose Piedmonts systems over the whole peninsula - Italy became Piedmontised at an almost indecent rate

The South’s distinct features made it entirely unsuitable for unification with Piedmont. The legal system of Naples, for example, was changed by 53 decrees (!) in just two days, in February 1861

Question 19

How did Piedmontisation divide up Italy, and unify some civilian functions?

Answer 19

The new kingdom was divided up into 53 provinces, each governed by a prefect.

All customs, coinage, weights, and measures were standardised, at least in theory, and the Piedmontese constitution became the Italian constitution

Question 20

How did Piedmontisation display regional ignorance, and attack the church?

Answer 20

Showed ignorance of regional affairs in Italy, particularly ignorance of the north to conditions in Naples and Sicily. Cavour never travelled further south than Tuscany.

Education had to be paid for by attacking the Church, leading to the dissolution of 2382 monasteries and convents which deprived areas of charitable institutions, which the state didn’t replace

The jury system was introduced in the South but the mafia was able to corrupt and intimidate Jurors.

Question 21

How did a lack of resources affect unity?

Answer 21

The Italian state lacked resources, both financial and human

The South became a drain on the North and Piedmont had neither the resources or manpower to administer the region well.

Question 22

How did Piedmontisation sweep aside Lombardy, but not Tuscany?

Answer 22

Lombardy had been promised its own legal constitution and it had its own legal system, education system, and local government. These were swept aside by Piedmontisation, introduced by La Marmora with an emergency decree and no debate

In August 1860, Modena, controlled by Farini, voted for annexation, but Tuscany was excluded from this; the powerful Baron Ricasoli was able to retain Tuscan customs and legal systems, at least in the short term

Question 23

Who were the Brigands, and what initially led to their rise in the South?

Answer 23

Brigands had been bandits that lived in mountains and forests during the Napoleonic wars, seen as protectors of the south.

The collapse of Bourbon rule in the south had left a power vacuum of law and order

Question 24

What laws did Piedmont introduce which contributed to the rise of Brigandage?

Answer 24

The new government in Italy had increased taxes to pay for the 2.5 bullion Lire debt caused by the war and agents of Francis II (deposed king) were stirring up unrest

Many Bourbon soldiers had also fled to the mountains after the Piedmontese General Cialdini ordered they be shot if found with weapons

Conscription was also introduced, which took young men from their families, where they were needed on farms. In 1861, around 25,000 took to the hills to avoid military service

Question 25

How did those opposed to Piedmont in west Sicily oppose the new state?

Answer 25

Many in the west of Sicily joined the mafia, with public opinion firmly against VEII

Question 26

How did the criminals join the brigands?

Answer 26

The unemployed, disillusioned and 10,000 convicts joined the Brigands after escaping during the Garibaldi campaign, badly organised

They robbed, murdered, and assassinated.

Question 27

How big of the problem did Brigandage become?

Answer 27

A civil war which would claim more Italian lives than all the wars of unification

The Piedmontese deployed an army of 120,000 to deal with the Brigand threat, and by 1862 it was estimated there were 82,000 Brigands in the Neapolitan provinces

In 1863 there were 90,000 troops engaged in peace-keeping, far more than were used against Austria

Question 28

How did the Brigands War come to an end?

Answer 28

Terror was used on both sides but by 1865 the war had subsided and the Brigand leaders, such as Crocco, had fled (they could make a Red Read/New Vegas game about this)

There were occasional outbreaks of violence and lawlessness after 1865, such as in 1866, where was a week-long rebellion in Palermo, Sicily, resulting in the murder of government officials and three days of bitter street fighting

Question 29

What industry did Italy have a monopoly on?

Answer 29

Sulphur Industry in the what was once the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies

Question 30

How did Britain play a role in the Brigands War?

Answer 30

Disraeli would say, in 1863, “I want to know on what ground are we to discuss the state of Poland [which had been invaded by the Russians] if we are not to discuss the state of Calabria and the two Sicilies

Unluckily for the Bourbon soldiers, the British government of the day hadn’t forgiven the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies for its exploitation of the Sulphur monopoly (referring to the Sulphur Crisis of 1840), and was happy to see Turin do what it wanted with the southern Italians and Sicilians

Question 31

How bad was the debt in Italy when it was formed?

Answer 31

Cavour’s policies of the 1850’s had left Italy with a 2.45 billion Lire deficit by 1861 and this more than doubled 4 years later after Piedmont took on all the smaller debts of the other states following unification

Question 32

How did the Italian government hope to fund its deficit and operations?

Answer 32

Italy had to pay its armed forces and keep peace in the South, as well as be ready to seize Rome or Venetia if the circumstances allowed. However, there was also a need to become a modern state with railways, roads, and military equipment. The result was very unpopular taxes, like the 1865 Flour Tax, as well the negotiation of humiliating foreign loans

By 1866, the deficit took up 60% of state expenditure, so they reluctantly reintroduced the despised Grist Tax in 1868, a tax on the milling of corn, which led to 250 deaths and 1,000 wounded in riots in the following two weeks. Many peasants were forced to move to towns, which led to reduced living standards

Question 33

How was the servicing of Italian debt and funding of operations seen as unfair?

Answer 33

By the mid 1860s, over 1/3 of Italian bonds were in foreign hands and most railways shares were owned by foreigners

Question 34

How did the Italian confront the Church’s land to help fund operations, and what was the result?

Answer 34

The state tried to raise taxes through the sale of land, especially from the Church. This began with an Act in 1867 and in the next nine years nearly 9 million acres of Church land was sold

In the North peasant farmers bought the land, but in the south it was the middle classes. Peasants often found that they had no capital to improve land and were forced to sell.

Question 35

What came of land reform in the new state, and what potentially got worse?

Answer 35

Unification did not lead to significant land reform, but this is unsurprising as the Piedmontese elite did not want social change

Also in the South, the great Latifundia owners enclosed more land and removed common land, which led to more agrarian problems.

Question 36

How was agriculture used for debt by the people of Italy?

Answer 36

Roughly 30% of the year’s produce was used for debt repayment

Question 37

How outdated was the agriculture industry in Italy?

Answer 37

Economist Nassau Senior estimated that production was the same as the time of the Roman Empire

Conservative attitudes in central and southern Italy meant that there was a distrust of paper money and borrowing was seen as immoral, so development was hard

Question 38

Why did the rest of industry lag behind in Italy?

Answer 38

There were only 3 million people employed in industry by 1861, of whom 80% were woman and children

Italy lacked the natural resources to develop as it was short of coal

Question 39

Why was Lombardy ahead in terms of transport in Italy?

Answer 39

There was little interest in canals due to Italy’s topography, but Austria (the REAL heroes of this story) had built canals in Lombardy

Also, Milan was linked by major roads to other European cities, with the roads suitable for stage coaches

Question 40

How large was the rail network by unification?

Answer 40

By unification there was only 2,773 km of railway, with the lines built for separate states, although few were built across the north Italian Plains and in 1857 the Venetian and Lombard railway systems had linked together

In Sardinia and Sicily there were no railways at all, which hindered the growth of industrial development, such as the olive industry in Aquila

Question 41

What was a huge problem of building rail, financially, in Italy?

Answer 41

The government couldn’t afford railways, but also couldn’t afford not to have them. In 1865 the railways passed to private hands, but still required huge government investment.

Question 42

What was hoped would come about from a unified rail system?

Answer 42

It was hoped a national rail system would unite the provinces and create political unity. When the Mount Cenis Tunnel through the Alps was completed in 1871, the Italian network was linked with France

This helped to create trade but only in the north, so a dual economy was created instead of a unified one. It helped stimulate the growth of factories, but overall the impact of railways was nowhere near as great as in other industrialised nations.

Question 43

How bad was the road system in Italy?

Answer 43

There was little investment in roads, but at least the Italians still had the roads built by the Romans

I didn’t even come up with that, it’s literally in the booklet, check it up.

Question 44

What was the difference between ‘legal’ and ‘real’ Italy?

Answer 44

According to historian Mark Clark, “legal Italy” was for those who were part of the state and “real Italy” (read most Italians) was those who felt most isolated and betrayed by Piedmontisation

Question 45

What did Baron Ricasoli tell nationalists upon his taking of office, but what was the problem with what he said?

Answer 45

“we claim Rome as our national capital and Venetia as an integral part of our national soil”

This would mean dealing with more than one Great Power at a time, when more than half of the Italian army was fighting Brigands in the south

Question 46

How did Garibaldi first prepare for the taking of Venetia?

Answer 46

Unconcerned by diplomatic niceties, Garibaldi assumed that, with his “party of action”, could achieve in Venetia what they had achieved in Naples

In December 1861, various working groups met to form the ‘Italian Freedom Association’. It met for the first time in March, 1862, with Garibaldi as president. He toured Lombardy and tried to raise money for Venice

Question 47

How did Ratazzi capitalise on Garibaldi’s desire to take Rome?

Answer 47

In March, 1862, Ratazzi summoned Garibaldi to Turin for a meeting to discuss possible action in Greece, Serbia, and Dalmatia to destabilise the Austrian Empire, but the scheme came to nothing

Question 48

How did the Austrians deal with Garibaldi in his initial attempts to take Venetia, and where did Garibaldi go to raise support in 1864?

Answer 48

In May, 1862, a group of Garibaldi supporters led by Nullo was arrested on the Austrian border. He attempted to to engineer an armed uprising in 1862 and and again in 1864, hoping that the uprisings elsewhere in the Austrian Empire would draw Austrian troops out of Italy.

In both cases the news leaked out, upsetting foreign diplomats, and forcing the Italian government to intervene and stop Garibaldi’s actions. Garibaldi visited London in 1864 to use the publicity to raise the issue of the liberation of Venice.

Question 49

When did the foreign mood enable Italy and excuse to engage with Austria?

Answer 49

Following the Schleswig-Holstein affair of 1866 where Austria was deemed to have violated the joint sovereignty of the region, relations between Austria and Prussia declined and Prussia and Italy now saw that Austria was their common enemy

Question 50

How did VE and La Marmora conflict over what should be done with Venice over due to the Schleswig Holstein affair?

Answer 50

VE was keen for a war to distract the population from the situation in the south.

La Marmora, the PM, preferred to avoid being a minor partner in an alliance again and offered to purchase Venetia from Austria for 1 billion Lire. This failed and the Italian government was forced into negotiations with the Prussians

Question 51

What did the Prussians and Italians agree to before any war, and why was France of no concern?

Answer 51

By April 1866, General Govone’s mission to Berlin had made a military agreement in which Italy was to receive Venetia in return for her war contribution

France was of no concern as in Biarritz, in 1865, the Prussian minister Bismarck met with Napoleon who promised neutrality in any war

Question 52

When did the third war of Italian independence take place?

Answer 52

On 20th June, 1866, 4 days after Prussia, Italy declared war on Austria

Question 53

Why were the Italians confident about war with Austria in 1866?

Answer 53

Italy had 250,000 men against just 130,000 Austrians

Their fleet had 12 ironclads to Austria’s 7

Question 54

What was wrong with the leadership of the Italian army/navy

Answer 54

The Italian general staff was inexperienced and Admiral Persano only led to fleet due to corruption and bribery

Rivalries between the officers

The monarch, who took personal control, led to poor decisions being made despite General Cialdini saying “the king is wholly ignorant and incompetent”.

Question 55

How poor was the Italian army at fighting?

Answer 55

Organisation was so poor that, of the 250,000 soldiers committed, only 25% of the army ever reached the front.

Initial confidence was destroyed when, on the 24th June, Italian forces fought at Custozza, but disintegrated after panic and confused orders set in, ruining the reputations of the officers and shattering Italian military pride.

Question 56

What failure occurred a month after the Italian army lost at Custozza on the 24th June, 1866?

Answer 56

In July, Admiral Persano’s fleet was destroyed at the Battle of Lissa. He lost 3 ships, including the “Re d’Italia”, the pride of the Italian navy.

It was claimed at Persano’s court martial that the fleet had fired 1,450 shells and not scored one major hit

Funny story actually, the Re d’Italia wasn’t lost to shells. Despite the fleet firing 1,450 shells, the Italia was lost because, after Austrian fire disabled the Italia’s rudder, the Austrian flagship, the SMS Erzhog Ferdinand Max, rammed the damn thing with no damage to itself. Hell, the captain tried this manoeuvre twice in the battle.

Question 57

How well was Garibaldi doing in the Third War of Italian Independence, and what were the Prussians doing in the meanstwhile?

Answer 57

One day after the Battle of Lissa, Garibaldi’s volunteers defeated an Austrian force in the battle of Bezzecca, and moved towards Trento

Meanwhile, the Prussians crushed the Austrians at Sadowa on the 3rd of July, and the Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck saw that his own ends in the war had been achieved, and signed an armistice with Austria on the 26th of July.

Question 58

How did the Italians react the the Prussians ending their war with Austria?

Answer 58

Italy, deserted by her ally, officially laid down its arms on August 12th.

Garibaldi was called back from his successful march and resigned with a brief telegram reading only ‘Obbedisco’, Italian for ‘I obey’.

Question 59

How embarrassing was the Third War of Italian Independence?

Answer 59

The war was a miserable failure and achieved none of the heroism the government was hoping for which could have united the nation behind nationalist feelings.

The war had damaged the prestige of both the army and the monarchy, and Venetia had come into Italian hands through the victory of a foreign power. There had been no Venetian uprising in support of the Italian forces.

Question 60

How did the relation between the Austrians and the French affect the results of the Third War of Italian Independence, and the transfer of Venetia?

Answer 60

As a result of a secret treaty between France and Austria, France agreed to remain neutral in the war in return for Venetia.

Following the war, Austria actually gave Venetia to France, largely to save-face and not been seen as having to give an inferior nation like Italy land.

Luckily, Napoleon immediately ceded Venetia to Italy. Following a plebiscite, Venice approved annexation by 647,246 votes to 69.

Question 61

The Third War of Italian Independence had no congress, so what happened?

Answer 61

Prussia dictated the terms to Italy and Austria

Question 62

What was the national feeling in Italy following the Third War of Italian Independence, and what did it cause?

Answer 62

In October 1866, there was a great rejoicing in Venice with Austria’s departure, yet the manner of victory showed Italy’s lack of military independence and power.

The war was devastating for the national psyche, and in August 1866 Crispi wrote “to be Italian was something we once longed for, now, in the present circumstances it is shameful”.

The war also caused great debt and this had to be paid for by nationalising church land in 1867 and by introducing the unpopular Grist Tax in 1868. Both of these actions increased tension in the new state

Question 63

Why was Rome so important to the Italian state?

Answer 63

• The last bit of the jigsaw following Venetia
• Symbol of foreign interference in their country and they wanted the French out
• The Italian government needed to bring the Pope under control. His allocution, Syllabus of Errors, and Papal infallibility had damaged the new kingdom and they wanted his influence reduced

Question 64

Where had Piedmontese forces initially defeat Papal forces, and what did it mean?

Answer 64

Piedmont had defeated the Papal forces at Castelfidaro in September 1860 on their way south to meet Garibaldi

This made direct negotiations between the anti-clerical Italian government and the Pope unlikely, made even more unlikely following the 1864 Syllabus of Errors

Question 65

Why were the French in Rome following the initial Italian unfication?

Answer 65

Louis Napoleon had failed to act to protect the Pope in 1860, which caused a Catholic backlash in France.

They agreed a vote on the Rome question in the French Chamber of Deputies and Senate in March 1861, and agreed to keep French troops in Rome.

The resolve was strengthened following Garibaldi’s failed attempt to take Rome in 1862

Question 66

What was agreed at the September Convention in 1864?

Answer 66

Negotiations between VE and Napoleon III resulted in the September Convention of 1864, whereby the Pope could raise an army of 10,000 troops for protection, and in return the French would leave within two years

The Italians, in return promised not to attack Rome and to make Florence the capital instead of Turin.

Question 67

Why was Napoleon pleased with the September Convention?

Answer 67

Napoleon believed the Italians had given up their claim on Rome, and was glad as guarding Rome was proving to be very expensive for the French.

At heart, Napoleon III was unhappy at having to guard the oppressive regime of the Pope, when he himself had more liberal qualities, but was being forced to keep his own Catholics content

Question 68

What was the wider Italian reaction to the September Convention?

Answer 68

The convention led to riots, resulting in the deaths of 23 people in Turin.

The Piedmontese PM Minghetti was sacked, but the government moved to Tuscany in 1865. In December 1866 the last French troops left, but returned in 1867 after Garibaldi tried to seize Rome a second time

The French garrisons stayed until 1870 and frosty relations between Italy and France persisted

Question 69

When did Garibaldi first take action against Rome following Italian unification?

Answer 69

Frustrated at the lack of action from the government, Garibaldi left Caprera in 1862, gathering 4,000 men from his “party of action” and marched on Rome, with Piedmont turning a blind eye, initially hoping that the French would withdraw

When they didn’t, the Italian government was forced to stop Garibaldi so that the French wouldn’t take action. On 29th August, Garibaldi was stopped in the mountains at Aspromonte, where he was shot in the foot. Some of his troops were executed

Garibaldi was pardoned, but denounced the king for double standards

Question 70

How did Garibaldi react to his failure to take Rome in 1862

Answer 70

Garibaldi wasn’t used to being injured and defeated.

It was also hugely embarrassing for the government, who had wounded and imprisoned a national war hero. This wasn’t the end for Gazza though

Question 71

How did Garibaldi react to the September Convention?

Answer 71

Nationalists were outraged that Florence was to be the capital and not the “Eternal City”. In April 1865, Florence was proclaimed capital, and Garibaldi decided upon action, escaping from house arrest on Caprera and sailing to the mainland

Question 72

What did Garibaldi do when he returned to the mainland following the September Convention?

Answer 72

Gary took control of his men “to capture Rome and abolish the Pope”. He hoped that the uprisings against the Pope would start but they failed to happen

France sent an army equipped with modern breech-loading rifles back to Rome and Garibaldi was easily defeated at Mentana on November 3rd, 1867. The French were now back in Rome only a few months after their withdrawal

Question 73

Where was Garibaldi wrong about the attacking Rome?

Answer 73

1. He had failed to realise that he would have to face the French
2. He would have to face the Italian army who would not allow “bandits” to threaten the Pope and claim the glory of taking Rome
3. There was no popular uprising against the Pope in the Papal States because the Church was economically and spiritually vital to the people who lived there

Question 74

How did the drift of France towards war with Prussia give Italy a diplomatic opening in the Rome question?

Answer 74

Diplomatically, in May 1870 Napoleon sought the basis of an anti-Prussian alliance with Italy and Austria, but Italy would not agree unless Rome was the prize, which the French Catholics would not allow.

Without Italy on board, the Austrians could not join France and risk another war with Italy

Question 75

How did the drift of France to war with Prussia give Italy an opening with other powers?

Answer 75

The outbreak of war offered another opportunity that public opinion wouldn’t allow to be ignored.

France withdrew the Roman garrison to fight Prussia, and following the defeat of the French, PM Lanza gained a formal agreement with Spain, Austria, and Catholic states in Germany to send Italian troops on Rome

Question 76

How did the Italian government first try to take Rome in 1870 formally?

Answer 76

VEII sent Count Gustavo Ponza di San Martino to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a face-saving proposal that would have allowed the peaceful entry of the Italian army into Rome, under the guise of offering protection to the Pope

Question 77

How did the Pope react to the formal attempt to take Rome by the Italian government in 1870?

Answer 77

The Papacy exhibited something less than enthusiasm for the plan. The Pope’s reception of San Martino (10 September 1870) was unfriendly.

Pius IX allowed violent outbursts to escape him. Throwing the King’s letter upon the table, he exclaimed “Fine loyalty! You are all a set of vipers, of whited sepulchres, and wanting in faith.” He was perhaps alluding to other letters received from VEII.

After growing calmer, he exclaimed “I am no prophet, nor son of a prophet, but I tell you, you will never enter Rome!”

San Martino was so mortified that he left the next day.

Question 78

How did the Italian government take the military option in dealing with Rome in 1870?

Answer 78

The Italian Army, commanded by General Cadorna, crossed the Papal frontier on the 11th of September and advanced slowly toward Rome, hoping that a peaceful entry could be negotiated

The Italian Army reached the Aurelian Walls on the 19th September and placed Rome under a state of siege.

Although now convinced of his unavoidable defeat, Pius IX remained intransigent to the bitter end and forced his troops to put up a token resistance.

Question 79

How did the Italian state finally annex Rome?

Answer 79

On September 20th, after a cannonade of three hours had breached the Aurelian Walls at Porta Pia, the Bersaglieri entered Rome and marched down Via Pia, which was subsequently renamed Via XX Settembre.

49 Italian soldiers and 4 officers, and 19 papal troops died. Rome and Latium were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy after a plebiscite held on October 2nd

The results of this plebiscite of 133,681 to 1,507 were accepted by decree of October 9th. Again, the legitimacy of the vote was suspect

Question 80

How did the Italian government try and appease the Pope after annexing Rome?

Answer 80

Initially, the Italian government had offered to let the Pope keep the Leonine City, but the Pope rejected the offer because acceptance would have been an implied endorsement of the legitimacy of the Italian kingdom’s rule over his former domain

In May 1871, the Italian government passed the Law of Guarantee’s as an attempt to appease the Pope, in which it recognised the powers of the Pope, giving him a grant of £129,000 per annum.

Question 81

How did Pius IX demonstrate how petty he was after the annexation of Rome?

Answer 81

Pius IX declared himself a prisoner of the Vatican, although he was not actually restrained from coming and going.

Rather, being deposed and stripped of much of his former power also removed a measure of protection - If he had walked the streets of Rome he might have been in danger from political opponents who had formerly kept their views private

The Papacy did not officially recognise the Kingdom of Italy until 1929!

Question 82

When did Rome finally become the official capital of the Kingdom of Italy?

Answer 82

Officially, the capital was not moved from Florence to Rome until July 1871

Question 83

How did the monarchy promote national unity in 1871?

Answer 83

• VEII was the king of the entire country and the new state was a constitutional monarchy
• The monarchy symbolised the stability of the new state and the strong barrier against republicanism and extremism
• The monarch was on good terms with foreign powers and was the main figurehead of a stable country
• The king needed parliamentary approval for new taxes and new laws were not valid without a minister’s signature

Question 84

How did the civil service promote national unity in 1871?

Answer 84

• Ran the economy, education, and state’s finances. Run by 30,000 bureaucrats, of whom 3,100 were based in Rome. It was relatively free of corruption
• Created a centralised government which worked to ensure common laws, taxes, education, and investment for the whole state (although this didn’t always succeed)
• The Carabinieri (military police) ensured that the work of the government was guaranteed in local areas. They were supported by 18,000 local police

Question 85

How did local government promote national unity in 1871?

Answer 85

• The country was divided into 69 provinces, each with a prefect who kept order in the provinces and ensured national instructions were carried out
• The prefect appointed a mayor to run each of the 8,382 communi (commune), a local form of government. The communi looked after education, public health, local taxes, and public works. This ensured a smooth running of the whole political system

Question 86

How did the Italian army promote national unity and sovereignty in 1871?

Answer 86

• 1/4 of the entire expenditure of the nation was on the armed forces, and it was kept high so that Italy could be seen as a great European power
• It had 15,000 officers (2/3 Piedmontese), 215,000 soldiers and 2 million in reserve. Regiments were from mixed states and were rotated every four years to ensure no divided loyalty
• It was used to crush internal enemies of the state and was very active in the south during the 1860s. It helped to eradicate enemies of the newly formed nation

Question 87

How diverse was the Italian army by 1871, and what did this mean?

Answer 87

Recruits were taken from all over Italy to represent the country and to become Italian soldiers. This helped to foster nationalism

This also gave many jobs to the veterans of the Wars of Independence, the Patrioti. They rewarded patriotic Italians and showed that nationalism and pride on their country would be rewarded

Question 88

How did the economic problems of the South divide Italy by 1871?

Answer 88

The southern economy was hampered by a lack of capital and skilled labour. Agriculture was the main industry, with fruit and olives being exported and silk produced in cottages

Power was a problem due to a lack of water, unlike the North which had rivers from the Alps. Unification also led to the removal of tariffs which had protected southern industry, causing the collapse of industries such as silk which couldn’t compete with their northern competition

This caused widespread de-industrialisation in the south, while boosting industry in the North, notably wool and cotton,

Question 89

How did taxes divide Italy by 1871?

Answer 89

Unification had brought higher taxation. Wars of the Risorgimento had to be paid for and the poor were targeted for tax rises, e.g. the Grist Tax

The government used the majority of the money to invest in public works, land reclamation and the military - mainly in the north

Question 90

What social problems did Italy have by 1871?

Answer 90

Poverty led to high infant mortality; 22.7% died before their 1st birthday and 50% before their 5th birthday in 1871.

Poverty, unemployment, higher taxes, and lack of land led to seasonal migration to richer northern areas or abroad to France or Switzerland. Many moved away permanently to the USA or South America, notably Argentina. In 1871, 120,000 Italians emigrated

Question 91

Why was the loss of temporal power so damaging to the Church by 1871?

Answer 91

The loss of temporal of power was important because the Pope couldn’t be ruled by anyone on Earth. The Church was humiliated after Rome was seized in 1870 and even the state issued Law of Guarantees, giving the Pope the status of a monarch, did not fully appease the Church.

Question 92

What the Law of Guarantee do for the Pope by 1871?

Answer 92

The Law gave the Pope his own postal service, full religious powers, his representatives at the Vatican had full diplomatic status, and he received 3,225,000 Lire per year as compensation for the loss of lands

Question 93

What did the Pope think of the Law of Guarantees by 1871, but why was the Law important regardless?

Answer 93

Pius ignored the law because it came from a government he did not recognise and he declared himself “a prisoner of the Vatican”.

The Law however, was an important statement and reassured the international community that the Church’s rights were protected.

As a result, all major powers recognised the Italian seizure of Rome and sent representatives to the monarch’s new official residence, the Quirinale Palace in Rome

Question 94

How did the Papacy still oppose the state by 1871?

Answer 94

Opposition strengthened the Church as it was a stand against Liberalism, modernity, and secularism.

From 1870 there were two courts in Rome, one in the Quirinale Palace and on at the Vatican, as to weaken Italy.

The Church also formed its own social organisations and Catholics refused to take part in the political process, meaning there was no mass conservative party on the right of Italian politics and for decades to come Catholics were on the margins of Italian politics

Question 95

Just how unrepresentative was the Italian parliament?

Answer 95

The Italian parliament was made up of two chambers: Chamber of Deputies and Senate. Deputies were elected to represent constituencies. However, the electorate was narrow in 1871, with only 500,000 or 2.2% of the population eligible to vote

Only 60% of those eligible did so, as Catholics and republicans boycotted on principle.

Question 96

How did the early party system work in the Italian government by 1871?

Answer 96

There was no party system, with factions forming around influential politicians.

Those on the “Right” were generally from the north and often aristocratic, supporting the monarchy and the process of improving Italy

Those on the “Left” were normally from middle class backgrounds and the south, tending to be more anti-clerical and were keener for an extension of the franchise

Question 97

How did Mazzinians and republicans continue to be a pain in the arse by 1871?

Answer 97

The unification of Italy under the House of Savoy meant that Republicans kept up their hopeless uprisings.

On the 24th May, 1870, a Mazzinian called Barsanti led an attack led an attack on army barracks in Pavia shouting “Long live Rome, long live the Republic, down with the monarchy”.

He was arrested and shot despite a petition of 40,000 calling for him to be pardoned

Question 98

What was Italian irredentism?

Answer 98

Italian irredentism was a nationalist movement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Italy with irredentist goals which promoted the unification of geographic areas in which indigenous ethnic Italians and Italian-speaking persons formed a majority, or plurality, of the population

Question 99

Who were most likely to be Irredentists?

Answer 99

Republicans were most likely to have an irredentist agenda. Irredentists in the north wanted to free Italians living under Austrian rule such as Trentino, Istria, and Trieste.

Others wanted to free Rome and use the rebirth of Italy to create an imperial power in the Mediterranean.

Those on the “Left” wanted to agitate against France and in 1870 Crispi called for a return of Nice and Savoy to Italian control. Others believed that Malta and Corsica should be under Italian control as part of Greater Italy.

The irredentists were a thorn in the side of the new state.