Social change in Germany and West Germany 1871-1990

Question 1

What was Germany like prior to 1871 when it came to where people lived and how they lived?

Answer 1

Prior to 1871, 2/3 of people lived in rural villages. By 1914, 2/3 of the population lived in towns

Prior to 1871, Germany was mainly agricultural and rural. After unification, there was a large amount of industrialisation, which led to overcrowding and poor conditions

Question 2

What sort of regulations were provided by the Second Reich to German citizens?

Answer 2

• Under chancellor Caprivi, Sunday work prohibited, children under 13 couldn’t work, and women didn’t have to work more than 11 hours a week
• Under chancellor Bülow, accident insurance was extend in 1900, industrial courts introduced, and a ban on child labour extended to all industries in 1903

Question 3

What sort of insurance/welfare was provided to citizens of the Second Reich, and how did wages improve?

Answer 3

Sickness Insurance 1883, Accident insurance 1884, and Old Age Pensions 1889

Unemployment only went above 3% in one year between 1900-14 and the average wage increased by 25% between 1895 and 1913

Question 4

Where were living conditions in towns lacking in the Second Reich?

Answer 4

Living conditions were very poor, with 30% of all family households living in destitution and abject misery

Question 5

How did working conditions improve in Weimar Germany?

Answer 5

The new Weimar constitution gave employees equal rights and also guaranteed the 8 hour working day

Working conditions were generally good and real wages increased by 9% in 1927 and 12% in 1928

Question 6

How bad was the Great Depression for workers in Weimar Germany?

Answer 6

The Great Depression hugely affected the working class with 9 million unemployed by 1933

Question 7

How did urban workers benefit from Nazi Germany?

Answer 7

• Urban workers benefitted from public work schemes and rearmament programmes but this was at the expense of their rights
• The working class grew by 10% from 1929-1938 as the Nazis prepared for war
• Still under-represented amongst the Nazi leadership

Question 8

How did urban workers benefit from West Germany?

Answer 8

• West Germany’s economic miracle led to increased migration to the cities, with over 74% living in urban areas
• The introduction of ‘guest workers’ (foreign workers) had introduced 1.2 million workers by 1966. This created an ‘underclass’ of ethnic workers in Germany’s cities, with low pay jobs
• In total, 14 million guest workers were employed and the programme was ended in 1973

Question 9

What occurred under Bismarck’s Anti Socialist Laws, enacted in 1878 after the two assassination attempts of Kaiser Wilhelm?

Answer 9

• Trade unions were banned
• 1878-1890, 1,500 socialists were imprisoned and many emigrated
• The law was implemented differently in the states and it didn’t prevent SPD members from standing in elections
• Bismarck’s actions seemed to united the socialists, and by 1890 the SPD had over 1 million voters and 35 Reichstag seats

Question 10

Bismarck had wanted to win over workers despite his anti-socialist laws. What did he push forward from 1883-89?

Answer 10

• Sickness Insurance Act 1883 gave free medical treatment for 3 million workers
• Accident Insurance Act 1884 gave 13 weeks’ protection to incapacitated workers
• Both extended in 1886 to an additional 7 million workers
• 1889, workers were given a pension when the reached the age of 70

Question 11

The Mittelstand in Bismarck’s Germany was of small, family owned businesses, with trades being organised into guilds. How did they benefit under Bismarck’s Germany?

Answer 11

• From 1871, rapid industrialisation outcompeted many artisans, like dyeing and weaving
• 1882-5, one-man artisan businesses dropped by 13.5% and suffered even more decline from 1897-1907

Question 12

How did the Mittelstand react to a lack of representation in Bismarck’s Germany?

Answer 12

The Mittelstand formed an angry section of society who felt unsupported by political elites and overshadowed by the working class, also lacking a single party to represent them

In 1897, the government tried to win them over with the protectionist Craft Laws, but this failed to have the desired effect. Many turned to extremist parties

Question 13

In Weimar Germany, the Mittelstand threw their support behind the Nazis early in the 1920s. Why?

Answer 13

The Nazis were anti-communist and in their original manifesto (the 25 Point Programme) there were policies to protect small traders.

The manifesto also said that larger businesses could be shut down and their premises given to small traders at a reduced rate

The Mittelstand were also concerned about the growth of large shopping centres during the Weimar period, and turned to Nazis who supported the artisanal tradition

Question 14

How much of the Nazi party was made up of skilled workers (Mittelstand) in Weimar Germany?

Answer 14

Skilled workers made up 33% of the Nazi Party membership in the 1920s despite making up only 27% of the population as a whole

Question 15

When in power, Hitler supported the Mittelstand from 1933. What did he do to aid them?

Answer 15

• Large department stores restricted with chain stores barred from expanding and unable to provide Mittelstand-related services
• Highly skilled artisans were protected from competition as the Nazis cracked down on the employment of unskilled work
• Nazi Party formations had to order boots and uniforms from artisans and from 1931-6, the number of artisan businesses rose by 20%

Question 16

The Nazis focus was far more on heavy industry than artisans, as to prepare for war. How did the Mittelstand suffer as a result?

Answer 16

From 1936-9, the number of artisan businesses declined by 11% and department stores’ turnover increased by 10%

By the end of the 1930s, the Nazis began to restrict artisans saying there were too many bakers, butchers, tailors, etc. Many businesses were closed if deemed economically unviable

The surviving small-businesses formed small-cooperatives during the war and pooled resources. Some were able to use Jewish slave labour to survive too

Question 17

With the end of the war came West Germany. What happened to artisans in this time?

Answer 17

• With the Marshall Plan 1947, the German economy began to recover and artisans were given special status to oversee the organisation and training of new workers
• By 1955, over 3.5 million Germans were employed in artisan trades, an increase of 1 million from 1939
• The cooperation of big industry with the artisans, which combined mass production with skilled craftsmanship helped to build a strong reputation for West German exports

Question 18

With the onset of unification, the Junkers in Bismarck’s Germany began to decline as Germany shifted from agriculture to industry. How did peasants react, and where did Junkers go?

Answer 18

Rapid decline in peasantry removed the quasi-alliance between peasants and Junkers, leading to a decline in Junker parties as peasants supported parties which actually supported them

Junkers now had to try and exert their influence beyond Prussia onto places like Bavaria, which were very suspicious of Prussians

Question 19

How did the Junkers attempt to stave off their decline in Bismarck’s Germany?

Answer 19

Began to work with the middle classes, putting them into positions of power to secure the alliance, but forced compromise with big business, who the government showed increasing interest in

This alliance meant the German Conservative Party would ally with the NLs to stand up to the rising SPD

Question 20

How did the working class react to how the Junkers ended up at the turn of the 20th Century?

Answer 20

Anger in the working class, who saw the Junkers as holding them back. There were riots in Prussia after the 1908 election, where the SPD won just 7 seats with 23% of the vote whereas the Junker Conservatives won 212 with just 16% of the vote

The SPD was the largest party in 1912 with 4 million votes and 110 seats, but was cautious and didn’t change much. It was only the shock of failure in the war which helped cause change

Question 21

With the end of the war in 1918, Weimar Germany began to take form with the limited revolution. How did this affect the Junkers?

Answer 21

• 28th October, Prince Max reformed the Prussian voting system, such that the Junkers could no longer dominate the military or government, and the old system was abolished
• The Junkers were aided by the Ebert-Groener Pact, which secured the military’s support for the new government, helping crush revolts but maintaining influence
• Some Junkers still held power, such as Hans von Seeckt, commander-in-chief of the army from 1920-6, and Franz von Papen, as well as Hindenburg

Question 22

How did Junkers undermine Weimar Germany?

Answer 22

Von Seeckt refused to fire upon the Freikorps during the Kapp Putsch in 1920, leaving Wolfgang Kapp being able to take over for 3 days

Franz von Papen schemed with Hindenburg to undermine Chancellor Schleicher and bring Hitler to power in 1933 with Junker and military support. They thought Hitler would be a ‘chancellor in chains’ and could be controlled, wanting to create a dictatorship, remove Hitler and return to Junker domination

Question 23

Hitler was very successful at manipulating the Junker elite. How did he initially win their support?

Answer 23

In June 1934, owing to concerns raised by the army about the power and recklessness of the SA and their leadership, Hitler carried out the Night of the Long Knives, winning him support

Question 24

How did Hitler then turn around and begin to aid in the decline of the Junkers?

Answer 24

With Hindenburg’s death, the mask was off. Powerful Junkers in the cabinet were removed, such as Papen in 1938, as well as Blomberg and Fritsch who were unconvinced of the aggressive foreign policy plans

Hitler endeavoured to kill off Junkers who he distrusted in an attempt to wipe out links to Imperial Germany

Question 25

How did Junkers react to Hitler’s betrayal?

Answer 25

The majority of Junkers in the military remained loyal to the Nazis despite this, but by 1944, a small group of military leaders known as the Kreisau Circle, concerned about the failings during the war, plotted to assassinate Hitler

Count von Stauffenberg attempted to carry out the murder by leaving a bomb in Hitler’s Wolf’s Lair bunker, but it failed. 5,000 people were murdered by the Nazis in reprisal attacks

Question 26

What, at long last, became of the Junkers who were in around after the end of the Second World War?

Answer 26

Most Junker lands were in Prussia, and these lay in East Germany and Poland following the end of the war.

Most Junkers were therefore forced to give up their land. In the Communist controlled East, Junkers’ lands were divided into smaller plots and turned into state run farns

The large aristocratic houses that existed for hundred of years were destroyed

Question 27

When did the Junkers in Germany finally die out?

Answer 27

By 1952, the power of the Prussian landowning elite and finally, after long last, come to and end

Gottem, lol

Question 28

The peasantry began to decline under Bismarck’s Germany, with the agricultural sector declining significantly. How much did they decline by 1989?

Answer 28

In 1900, agriculture made up 30% of German national income. By 1989, this was under 2%. The number of workers employed in agriculture jobs declined from 49% in 1871 to 2% in 1989

Question 29

How did the Junkers and Peasantry hope to stave off their decline in Bismarck’s Germany?

Answer 29

During the Kaiserreich, there was much debate over the role of agriculture in an industrialised society, but the Junkers needed the farms for their income.

It was the Junkers who persuaded Bismarck to introduce tariffs in 1879 to stop the import of cheap grain from Russia and the USA. In 1893, the Junker-backed Agrarian League was formed to fight attempts by the government to weaken tariffs on foreign imported food (so that Germans would buy German food, supporting Junkers)

Question 30

What resulted of the Peasant classes as a result of WW1 (Weimar Germany)?

Answer 30

Agricultural production slipped during WW1 due to the loss of workers to the front line. Moreover, fertiliser and fuel had to be prioritised for the war effort

There were major food shortages during the war as a result, e.g. the Turnip Winter 1916-7

Question 31

How did life for Peasants change during the Weimar Germany?

Answer 31

The 1920s saw improved farming practices in Holland and Denmark, combined with competition from world markets, leading to further trouble for farmers in Germany

Even before the Wall Street Crash and depression from 1929, German farmers were experiencing major slumps in the value of their goods and resulted in widespread bankruptcy and closure of a number of farms

Many farmers turned to the Nazis for support and voted for them throughout the 1920s

Question 32

The Nazis promoted agricultural life as the heart of the German tradition, as opposed to decadent cities. How did Peasants benefit under the Nazis?

Answer 32

The Nazis romanticised the unchanging nature of German villages and promoted the traditional, and clear, roles of men and women

In 1933, they introduced laws to protect farms from being forcibly sold due to debt and takeovers from (((banks))), from land being broken up and guaranteed a high price for German produce

Question 33

How did the peasants suffer regardless under Nazi rule?

Answer 33

The peasantry continued to decline as major developments in industry, due to the Nazis focus on the war, led to increased migration from rural areas to cities

Farmers were continually pressured into increasing yields during the war to feed the country, despite this decline

Question 34

After WW2, West German farmers benefitted from mechanisation and improved farming practices. What else happened to them as a result?

Answer 34

Agriculture became more efficient as smaller farms were consolidated into larger ones, therefore improving the rural economy. Farming machinery was also subsidised by the government, and demand for German produce was high

This restructuring lead to a further decline in workers and between 1950-60, the rural economy lost 50% of its workforce. Agriculture continued to decline right up until 1990 as there was an increased focus on technology and industry

Question 35

As Bismarck’s Germany developed, there was a far greater need for white-collar workers. How did the number of white-collar workers change?

Answer 35

In Prussia, the civil service grew from 40,000 in 1850 to 250,000 by 1907. There was also an explosion in social mobility due to the increasing need for sophisticated jobs such as marketing, sales, and finance

This enabled the lower middle classes to take up better paid ‘white-collar’ jobs; people who were the children of artisans.

Question 36

How much did artisans decline relative to white collar work in Bismarck’s Germany, and what was the result of this?

Answer 36

From 1882-1907, the number of self-employed artisans decreased from 24.4% of the population to 18.8% whilst the number of white collar workers grew from 4.7% to 10%

This had a social impact because these new white-collar workers were well-educated and enjoyed better pay than other workers. As a result, they organised the,selves into pressure groups to campaign for improvements and representation

Question 37

When did the white-collar workers begin to align themselves with the working classes?

Answer 37

By 1912, the power of the white-collar workers were more powerful than ever and were willing to work with the SPD and oppose the entrenched system

During the war, white-collar workers saw a dramatic drop in their standards of living, to the same level as ordinary workers, which saw increasing opposition to the war by August 1916

The middle class leader of the Z party, Matthias Erzberger made a call for peace in July 1917, which was ignored, but he aligned himself with the SPD against the elites which increased the union between white-collar and working class people of Germany

Question 38

What were some immediate problems for White-Collar workers with the end of WW1 in Weimar Germany?

Answer 38

The hyperinflation from 1921-3, and the Great Depression at the end of the 1920s, hit the white-collar workers particularly hard and this lead to a growing sense of unease at the government’s inability to help them

Moreover, the increasing number of women who gained jobs during the war and the progressive society Weimar created meant that white-collar workers returning from the war didn’t necessarily find employment

Question 39

The union of white-collar and blue-collar faltered during Weimar, as white-collar workers saw themselves as superior. How did this manifest negatively?

Answer 39

Whilst the number of white-collar workers doubled from 1907-25, blue-collar workers increased by 20% and unemployment increased for the working class, increasing resentment

White-collar workers did not enjoy the real wage increases of the working class between 1924-29 and in 1928, there were 183,371 white-collar workers unemployed

White-collar workers did not receive the same level of benefits as blue-collar workers and 90,000 of them had no unemployment support at all

Question 40

Who amongst white-collar workers did the Nazis appeal to?

Answer 40

In Berlin, by 1933, 60% of university graduates were unemployed which lead to increasing antagonism against Weimar and hope that the Nazis would do something. The Nazis did enjoy strong support from younger WC workers, who made up 20% of members from 1929-32

Voting patterns for WC workers were not uniform though - those in the state voted Nazi whereas those in more manual positions voted SPD.

Question 41

What were some of the biggest benefits that White-Collar workers received in Nazi Germany?

Answer 41

• The WC population grew by 25% from 1933-9 and they made up 1/4 of every worker, an increase from 1/35 in 1885
• Received 10% pay rise during the Nazi period, compared to BC workers whose income stagnated
• Under the Nazis, they enjoyed better pensions and insurance schemes than working classes, even referred to as ‘Sie’ (formal), rather than ‘du’ (informal)

WC workers remained loyal throughout the war too

Question 42

Rapid industrial growth from the 1950s drove a massive expansion of white-collar workers as the economy shifted to service industries. Where can this be seen?

Answer 42

• Wages were high, with people enjoying good social security and a high standard of living
• From 1950-64, real wages doubled which fuelled consumerism and led to increasing demand for skilled labour
• Wage earners made up 9% of car owners in 1950, but 50% by 1960. Living standards improved by 58% from 1953-1960.
• The move to service industry during the 1970s allowed more Germans to enter the middle class, and by 1989 66% of the population was employed in services

Question 43

West Germany rebuilt itself as an incredibly successful capitalist economy, partly because society became more equal with the levelled middle-class. Where was this not present?

Answer 43

Blue-collar workers didn’t enjoy the benefits white-collar workers did and many of the white-collar workers were men - workers were discouraged from working and when they did, were paid less and in low status jobs

Question 44

In the militarised Prussian society, women’s roles were clearly defined. What were the lives of Women like in Bismarck’s Germany?

Answer 44

Women were to fulfil their patriotic duty of maternal care and emotional support, tending to the sick and needy

It was believed women were too fragile to play a larger part in society, and thus the Kaiserreich was very hierarchical with men dominating women in all aspects of life

Question 45

What was women’s work in Bismarck’s Germany like?

Answer 45

Female sectors were textiles and food-processing. These were often the lowest paid and least skilled jobs - womens work was considered subsidiary to mens work

Any money which was earned was made moot by the national civil code, which legalised the lower status of women and asserted men had authority in all matters relating to his wife’s property and wealth, including power of attorney (complete control) over his wife’s legal contracts

Question 46

Women did actually protest the separation of the sexes. How did women protest the division of men and women in Bismarck’s Germany?

Answer 46

In 1885, Emma Iher established the Society for the Protection of Women Workers’ Interests which helped support working women by providing the services of doctors and lawyers for free

This Society campaigned for women’s rights and had some success in pressuring the Reichstag to conduct an official survey into wages in the clothing industry. The group had 1000 members by 1896 when the government banned it

Iher continued her work and in 1890 became the first and only women elected to the General Commission of German Trade Unions

Question 47

The SPD also challenged discrimination against women in Bismarck’s Germany. What sort of work did they do?

Answer 47

Women’s section led by Clara Zetkin, who began the first ever International Women’s Day which took place on 19th March, 1911

One of the SPDs most active members was the socialist Rosa Luxemburg

Question 48

The Federation of German Women’s Associations was created in the 1890’s to campaign for reform to the civil code. How successful was it?

Answer 48

Despite agitation from this large group and from the SPD, the government refused to make reforms and the restrictions on women’s lives remained until the First World War

Question 49

What did SPD women do during the start of the First World War?

Answer 49

Clara Zetkin, Rosa Luxemburg, and Luise Kahler were among the few SPD members who opposed the party’s pro-war policy, going against the Burgfriede

Zetkin organised the international socialist women’s anti-war conference in Berlin in 1915 and both her and Luxemburg were arrested several times during the war

Question 50

While the number working didn’t change much, the type of work did change. How were women in general affected by the First World War?

Answer 50

The shortage of male workers meant women began working in areas previously forbidden, such as heavy industry, chemicals, etc

Women also took up key positions in the German postal service and transport sectors; many were becoming the primary breadwinners

Women’s work was even promoted by the government as being essential for the war effort

Question 51

How did legal changes and politics improve the lives of women in Weimar Germany?

Answer 51

Women made up 9.6% of the new Weimar parliament from 1919, far above Imperial era Germany, Britain, and the USA

The new Weimar constitution moved away from Bismarck’s civil code and guaranteed female equality in education and equal opportunity in employment in the civil service, as well as equal pay

Question 52

How were Weimar women treated?

Answer 52

Urbanised, financially independent, single, sexually active, they followed US fashion and spent evenings in bars and clubs.

The loss of 2 million German men meant that the traditional idea of marriage for many young women was now impossible and led to this

Question 53

What were some negatives for women in Weimar Germany?

Answer 53

Women were expected to stop working once they were married so that they could focus on domestic life and raising a family. Moreover, despite the progressive nature of Weimar, women workers still had low paid jobs and low status

Overall, the vast majority of women experienced change from Imperial Germany

Question 54

The Nazis views on women were very traditional, and similar to the views in Imperial Germany. What were their views?

Answer 54

The new Weimar women were portrayed as a danger to the social fabric of German society - decadent and immoral

The Nazis believed that if women didn’t lead traditional lives, the nations strength would be under threat. This was supported by large numbers of people who wished to return to the old way

Nazis were also well-supported by female voters in the 1930s, not necessarily due to anti-feminism, but rather the hardships of the great depression

Question 55

What laws were enacted in Nazi Germany regarding women?

Answer 55

• Women banned from government employment and practicing medicine or law
• Interest free-loan to young German couples if the wife didn’t work
• Syllabus changed to focus upon domestic science, wearing makeup being discouraged and police encouraged to reprimand smoking women

Question 56

What societal changes did the Nazis make to the lives of women?

Answer 56

• Encouraged to have children through the reward to the Mother’s Cross; 8 children was a gold medal
• Racially unfit were discouraged from having children, forcefully sterilised
• Lebensborn programme, providing an adoption service for the racially pure to give their children to SS officer’s families. Essentially Nazi sanctioned brothels

Question 57

Despite their best efforts, the Nazis failed to restrict the female workforce. What changed for women in work?

Answer 57

• By 1939, women made up 33% of the workforce
• Women’s wages increased at a faster rate than men between 1935-8
• During the war, 60% of the workforce was women

The policies were contradictory as whilst there were restrictions towards work, the Nazis needed them in preparation for war and they were crucial when it began, but were underutilised

Question 58

Following WW2, there was a focus on rebuilding family life in West Germany. How did this manifest?

Answer 58

A benefits programme was introduced in the 1950s, known as Kindergeld, which was only applicable to families with 3+ children and excluded many working, single and widowed women

Pensions, introduced in 1957, also discriminated against women since they were based on total earnings and wages throughout one’s working life - women who had therefore worked part-time or had maternity leave did not receive a full pension

Question 59

How well off were women economically in West Germany?

Answer 59

By 1980, women made up just 39% of the workforce, a figure just 2% higher than in Weimar Germany

Also by this time, women were still in the lowest paid jobs and ones with the lowest status. 93% of all part-time workers were women and on average, women’s pay was 30% lower than men’s

Question 60

How did female legal equality improve in West Germany?

Answer 60

West German Basic Law of 1949 guaranteed legal equality of women

In 1980, the government created a National Officer for Women’s Affairs who was responsible for working towards female equality in West Germany

Rita Süssmuth became the 10th President of the Bundestag in 1988, but up until 1989 men still dominated higher positions. The social status of women, even in the late 1980s, was judged by their father’s or husband’s employment